Necromancy

Necromancy is a specific practice of magic involving communication with the deceased. Practitioners aim to summon spirits as apparitions or visions. The primary purpose of these rituals is divination. Divination is the act of foretelling future events or discovering hidden knowledge. Sometimes, the term is used more broadly to describe witchcraft or black magic. It is also occasionally categorized under the label of death magic.

The word itself has deep linguistic roots. It is adapted from Late Latin, which was a loan word from post-Classical Greek. The Greek term is a compound of two words. One part means "dead body." The other part means "divination." This compound form was first documented by Origen of Alexandria in the 3rd century AD. The Classical Greek term appeared in the Odyssey. It later moved into Latin and then into 17th-century English.

Necromancy was widespread throughout many ancient civilizations. Records show its practice in Egypt, Babylonia, Greece, Rome, and China. In Persia, the historian Strabo referred to practitioners as "diviners by the dead." In Babylonia, these practitioners were known as barû. The spirits they raised were called etemmu. Traditional Chinese folk religion also involves seeking blessings from dead ancestors. These rituals are often performed as acts of filial piety.

The oldest literary account of these rituals is found in Homer's Odyssey. In this epic, the hero Odysseus seeks insight about his journey home. Under the direction of the sorceress Circe, he travels to the underworld. He uses specific spells to raise the spirits of the dead. His goal is to question the shade of the seer Tiresias. To succeed, Odysseus must follow a very specific recipe. He performs rites around a pit with fire during the night. He also uses the blood of sacrificial animals to create a libation for the ghosts to drink.

Rituals could be incredibly elaborate and varied. They often involved magic circles, wands, talismans, and incantations. Some necromancers surrounded themselves with morbid symbols of death. This might include wearing the clothing of the deceased. They might also consume foods that symbolized decay, such as unleavened black bread. Some practitioners even engaged in the mutilation or consumption of corpses. These ceremonies could last for hours, days, or even weeks. Practitioners often preferred to summon those who died within the last twelve months. They believed recently departed spirits spoke more clearly than older ones.

In the Bible, necromancy is described as a prohibited practice. The Book of Deuteronomy explicitly warns Israelites against divination from the dead. During the Hellenistic period, some Jewish people called these practitioners "bone-conjurers." A famous example involves King Saul and the Witch of Endor. Saul requested that she invoke the spirit of the prophet Samuel. The text notes that the spirit appeared as a familiar spirit. This event had significant consequences, as the text implies Saul's death was linked to this prohibition.

During the Middle Ages, the concept of necromancy shifted. Many medieval writers believed that actual resurrection required God's help. They argued that necromancers were actually conjuring demons that looked like spirits. This practice was called maleficium and was condemned by the Catholic Church. Medieval practitioners were often highly educated members of the clergy. They were typically literate and possessed knowledge of Latin, astrology, and demonology. They often used toxic plants like belladonna or mandrake in magic salves.

Medieval necromancy focused on three main goals: will manipulation, illusions, and knowledge. Will manipulation involved using demons to affect the minds of others. This could include driving someone mad or influencing their feelings. Illusions involved the supposed reanimation of the dead or conjuring food. Knowledge was sought by having demons reveal information about criminals or future events. To perform these acts, practitioners used magic circles as fortresses. These circles were meant to protect the operator from evil spirits. They also used conjurations, which were special words or prayers used to call spirits into the physical world.