Witchcraft

Witchcraft is the practice of using magic by an individual known as a witch.

While the concept is largely imaginary, it has served a functional role in many cultures. It provides a way for societies to explain the presence of evil or sudden misfortune. Traditionally, the term refers to the use of magic to inflict supernatural harm or misfortune on others. This malevolent interpretation remains the most widespread meaning globally. Historians and anthropologists study these beliefs to understand how humans assign agency to remarkable luck.

There are different mechanisms through which people believe magic is enacted. Some cultures believe witches use material objects, specific words, or gestures to cause harm. This might involve casting curses through inscribed runes or sigils. Practitioners might also use a poppet, which is a wax or clay image of a person. Other methods include creating potions or poisons from herbs and animal parts. Some beliefs suggest witches use items from a target's body, such as hair or clothing.

Others believe witches introduce cursed objects, like small bones, into a victim's body.

Beliefs about the source of magical power vary significantly between different cultures. Anthropologist E. E. Evans-Pritchard made a distinction between witchcraft and sorcery. He reserved "witchcraft" for harm caused by an inborn power. He used "sorcery" for those who required physical tools to work magic. However, historians found this distinction difficult to apply to European history. In Europe, many accused witches were believed to use both physical techniques and thought alone. Some cultures also believe magic comes from an internal substance. In parts of Africa and Melanesia, an evil spirit or substance may drive a person to harm.

Historically, the belief in witchcraft has appeared in many different societies. Evidence of malevolent magic exists as far back as ancient Mesopotamia. In Europe, these beliefs trace back to classical antiquity. During the medieval and early modern periods, accusations often targeted women. These women were believed to use black magic, known as maleficium, against their communities. Accusations frequently arose from social tensions between neighbors. Some accused individuals were said to commune with demons or the Devil. These specific accusations were often made against opponents of the Church.

These historical beliefs had serious and often violent consequences. European witch-hunts and trials during the early modern period led to tens of thousands of executions.

Suspected witches were often prosecuted and punished if found guilty or simply believed to be guilty. In some regions, people used protective magic or "white magic" to thwart these threats. This was often provided by "cunning folk" or "wise people." In Europe, belief in witchcraft gradually dwindled during and after the Age of Enlightenment. However, modern witch-hunting still takes place in parts of Africa and Asia.

Specific misfortunes were frequently attributed to the work of witches. In Europe, common targets included the health of adults, children, or livestock. For example, a lack of milk in cows or infertility in women were often linked to witchcraft. Illnesses that appeared suddenly or could not be diagnosed were prime candidates for suspicion. Witches were also frequently associated with animals. Some believed they could shapeshift into animal forms. Others believed they had animal helpers called familiars. These were often viewed as evil spirits or demons in animal form.

Today, the term "witchcraft" has been reclaimed by some groups. Since the 1930s, followers of certain modern paganism have identified as witches.

For these practitioners, witchcraft is a part of their neopagan beliefs and practices. This is a significant shift from the traditional view of magic as purely harmful. Some neopagans still avoid the term because of its negative historical connotations. This shows how the meaning of a single word can change based on the identity of the speaker. The study of witchcraft continues to connect to fields like anthropology, history, and religion.