Human sacrifice

Human sacrifice is the ritual act of killing one or more individuals. This practice is typically performed to satisfy specific religious or social goals. Common motivations include pleasing or appeasing gods and spirits of dead ancestors. It can also serve human rulers or fulfill jurisdictional demands for justice through capital punishment. Some societies practiced retainer sacrifice, where servants were killed to serve a monarch in the afterlife.

In some contexts, the practice is also referred to as ritual murder.

The mechanisms behind these rituals vary depending on the culture's specific beliefs. Many rituals are intended to secure good fortune or pacify divine beings. For instance, sacrifices might occur during the dedication of a new temple or bridge. Fertility is another common theme found in ancient religious contexts. The Aztec god of agriculture, Xipe Totec, was associated with these themes.

In other cases, the practice serves a protective function. In ancient Japan, legends describe "hitobashira," or human pillars. These were people buried near or at the base of constructions to protect buildings from disasters or enemy attacks.

Different types of ritualized killing served distinct social and spiritual purposes. One type is retainer sacrifice, intended to assist a leader in the next world. This was practiced by Mongols, Scythians, and early Egyptians. Another type involves divination, where the future is sought through the victim's body. The historian Strabo noted that Celts would stab a victim with a sword to divine the future from death spasms.

A related but distinct practice is headhunting. This involves taking the head of a killed adversary for ceremonial, magical, or prestige reasons.

Historical records show that human sacrifice has been practiced since prehistoric times. By the Iron Age, the practice became less common across Africa, Europe, and Asia. This shift occurred alongside developments in religion during the Axial Age. During classical antiquity, many societies began to view the practice as barbaric. However, in the Americas, human sacrifice continued among some groups until European colonization.

The Aztecs provide a notable example of large-scale ritual. During the re-consecration of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, they reportedly killed between 10,000 and 80,400 prisoners over four days.

In Ancient Egypt, evidence suggests retainer sacrifice occurred during the early dynastic period. At Abydos, servants were sometimes buried with kings to accompany them into eternal life. Skeletons found at these sites showed no obvious signs of trauma. This has led to speculation that these acts might have been voluntary or drug-induced.

The scale of these burials reflected social hierarchy. For example, King Djer had 318 retainer sacrifices in his tomb and 269 in nearby enclosures. This suggests a much higher level of importance for the pharaoh compared to court officials.

Religious texts often reflect the history and abolition of these practices. The Bible contains several accounts that suggest an awareness of and disdain for human sacrifice. The story of Abraham and Isaac in Genesis 22 is often viewed by scholars as an etiological myth. This means the story may explain the historical shift from human sacrifice to animal sacrifice.

Other biblical accounts, such as those involving the kings of Judah, describe the practice as an abominable or cruel act. In Carthage, archaeologists have found a child cemetery called a "Tophet." It contained an estimated 20,000 urns, though the exact cause of death for these children remains a subject of controversy.

Today, human sacrifice is extremely rare and widely condemned. Most major modern religions reject the practice entirely. Modern secular laws classify these acts as murder. As societies evolved, many replaced human sacrifice with symbolic alternatives. This includes animal sacrifice or the mock-sacrifice of effigies, such as the Argei in ancient Rome.

These transitions mark a significant change in how human societies handle justice, religion, and the divine.