Animal sacrifice

Animal sacrifice is the ritual killing and offering of animals. It is usually performed as part of a religious ritual. People often do this to appease a deity or to maintain favor with a god. This practice was very common throughout Europe and the Ancient Near East. It continued until the spread of Christianity in Late Antiquity. Some cultures and religions still perform versions of these rituals today. It is important to distinguish sacrifice from ritual slaughter for food. In a sacrifice, the animal is usually the best specimen of its kind.

The mechanism of sacrifice varies depending on the culture's specific traditions. Some groups, like the Ancient Greeks, practiced a shared meal. They would burn the inedible parts, such as bones and internal organs, as the deity's portion. The remaining edible meat was then prepared for a feast. The participants would eat the meat, and leading figures might taste it on the spot. Other cultures practiced a holocaust. In a holocaust, the entire animal is placed on the altar fire and burned. In some Ancient Near Eastern cultures, the whole animal was either burned or buried.

Different types of sacrifices exist based on the intended recipient. In Ancient Rome, sacrifices were divided by the nature of the gods. Sacrifices to the "di superi," or gods of the heavens, happened in daylight. These required white, infertile victims of the same sex. For example, a white heifer might be offered to Juno. In contrast, sacrifices to the "di inferi," or gods below, happened at night. These rituals used dark, fertile victims. Because the living could not share a meal with the dead, these were often holocausts.

History shows that animal sacrifice has deep roots in human civilization. In Ancient Egypt, the Badari culture left early evidence between 4400 and 4000 BCE. Archaeologists at Hierakonpolis found remains of many animals, including baboons and hippopotami. These may have been sacrificed for powerful citizens. In Europe, the Monte d'Accoddi in Sardinia is one of the earliest known sacred centers. Excavations there show that sheep, cattle, and swine were sacrificed. In Spain, a young goat was found in a cave from the Middle Neolithic period.

The choice of animal often depended on the specific deity or social status. The Greeks had a hierarchy of preferred animals. They favored bulls or oxen first, followed by cows and sheep. Sheep were the most common choice. Pigs were considered the cheapest mammal, and poultry was used rarely. Different animals were thought to suit different gods. Bulls were for Zeus and Poseidon, while doves were for Aphrodite. The Scythians also had specific preferences. They viewed the horse as the most prestigious offering, but they never sacrificed pigs.

Large-scale sacrifices could involve massive numbers of animals and people. In Greece, a grand sacrifice called a hecatomb theoretically involved 100 bulls. In practice, it might only involve a dozen, but large festivals could see hundreds of cattle sacrificed. These events could involve thousands of people feasting. Huge structures, like the Altar of Pergamon, were built for such occasions.

Even smaller offerings existed, such as throwing a grain of incense on a sacred fire. Farmers also offered the "first fruits" of their harvest as simple gifts.

These rituals served to connect humans to the divine and the social order. In Homer's epic poems, sacrifices are linked to banquets and important endeavors. For instance, Odysseus offered a sacrificial ram to Zeus. These stories suggest that gods were viewed as members of society with social ties. However, as time passed, views on these practices began to change. During the Hellenistic period, new philosophical movements started to question the ethics of animal sacrifice. This shows how the relationship between religion, ethics, and ritual has evolved over thousands of years.