Vedanta

Vedanta is a major branch of Hindu philosophy and textual exegesis. The term comes from two Sanskrit words: Veda, referring to the four sacred texts, and Anta, meaning "end." Therefore, Vedanta literally means the "end of the Vedas."

It focuses on the Upanishads, which are the final parts of the Vedic period. These texts represent the highest level of Vedic philosophy. Because they are the last parts taught, they are often called the "higher enquiry," or Uttara Mimamsa. This distinguishes them from Pūrva Mimamsa, which focuses on earlier ritualistic sections. Vedanta explores the deep relationship between humans and the Absolute reality.

All Vedanta traditions rely on a specific group of texts called the Prasthānatrayī. This name translates to "the three sources." The first source is the Upanishads, known as the Śruti or "heard" foundation. The second is the Brahma Sutras, which serve as the reason-based foundation. The third is the Bhagavad Gita, the "remembered" tradition.

Famous teachers like Shankara, Bhaskara, Ramanuja, Madhva, Nimbarka, and Vallabha have all written commentaries on these three works. These commentaries provide different interpretations of how the texts should be understood.

Vedanta traditions are often categorized by their views on the relationship between the individual and the Divine. These views involve complex ideas about ontology, which is the study of the nature of being. One major movement is Advaita, or non-dualism. Advaita thinkers like Shankara emphasize jñana, or knowledge, to understand that the self is identical to the ultimate reality. Other traditions, such as those following Dvaita or Vishishtadvaita, are related to Vaishnavism. These schools often emphasize bhakti, which is devotion to God, usually understood as Vishnu.

There are many specific types of Vedanta schools. Bhedabheda explores both difference and non-difference. Dvaita is a dualist school where the individual soul and God are totally different. Vishishtadvaita is a qualified non-dualism where the soul is connected to God like a part of a whole. Suddhadvaita is a form of pure non-dualism.

Some schools, like Achintya-Bheda-Abheda, describe the relationship as an inconceivable difference and non-difference. Modern developments include Neo-Vedanta and the philosophy of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya.

Philosophers in these schools also study epistemology, which is the study of how we gain valid knowledge. This study is called Pramana, meaning "proof." Ancient texts identify six pramanas: perception, inference, comparison, postulation, non-perception, and scriptural testimony.

Different schools disagree on which proofs are valid. For example, Advaita accepts all six pramanas. However, the Dvaita and Vishishtadvaita schools accept only three: perception, inference, and testimony. In these schools, scriptural testimony is considered the most authentic source of knowledge.

At the center of these discussions are three metaphysical categories: Brahman, Ātman, and the world. Brahman is the ultimate reality or the Absolute. Ātman is the individual soul or self. The third category is the empirical world, often called Prakriti or Jagat.

Most Vedanta schools believe in samsara, the cycle of rebirth. They also seek moksha, which is the desirable release from this cycle. The relationship between the soul and Brahman is the main subject of debate.

Different thinkers describe Brahman in different ways. Shankara spoke of Parā Brahman, the higher, undifferentiated Absolute, and Aparā Brahman, the lower Brahman with qualities. Ramanuja rejected the idea of an undifferentiated Absolute. He believed Brahman is Īśvara, a personal God with many auspicious attributes. Madhva also identified Brahman with the personal god Vishnu. These varying perspectives show how Vedanta connects deep logic with spiritual devotion.