Indian philosophy

Indian philosophy is a vast collection of traditions from the Indian subcontinent. These thinkers often use the term darśana, which means "to see" or "looking at."

Other classical thinkers used the term ānvīkṣikī. This refers to "critical inquiry" or "investigation." These traditions explore deep questions about existence. They study how we gain knowledge and how we should live. Most of these schools were formally recognized between 500 BCE and the late Common Era.

Philosophers often classify these traditions into two main groups. The āstika schools are considered orthodox because they accept the Vedas as a valid source of knowledge. The nāstika schools are called heterodox or Śramaṇic because they do not follow the Vedas.

Some scholars use these terms differently. Some see "orthodox" as a synonym for theism, or belief in gods. Others see "heterodox" as a synonym for atheism. There are many different ways to organize these complex systems of thought.

There are six major āstika schools of Vedic philosophy. These are Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedānta. Nyāya is the "logic" school that focuses on epistemology, or the study of knowledge. It accepts four types of valid knowledge called Pramā: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. Vaiśeṣika is closely related and focuses on the metaphysics of substance and atoms.

These two schools are often studied together as a pair.

Other āstika schools offer different views on reality. Sāṃkhya is the school of "enumeration." It views the universe as two independent realities: puruṣa, which is perceiving consciousness, and prakṛti, which is perceived reality or matter. Yoga is similar to Sāṃkhya but focuses on yogic practice and often accepts a personal god. Mīmāṃsā focuses on interpreting Vedic rituals and philology. Finally, Vedānta interprets the philosophy of the Upanishads. It explores the relationship between Atman and Brahman.

The nāstika traditions include five major schools. These are Jain, Buddhist, Ajivika, Ajñana, and Charvaka.

These traditions developed their own ideas about the soul, ethics, and materialism. Some of these schools, like Ajñana and Charvaka, did not survive into the modern era. However, Jainism and Buddhism remain very influential. They have shaped much of the philosophical history of the region.

Jainism is one of the oldest traditions in this group. It is unique because it separates the soul from the body completely. Followers believe every soul has infinite knowledge and bliss. However, ignorance causes the soul to identify with the physical body. This leads to karma and the cycle of rebirth.

The tradition identifies Rishabhadeva as a founder from a very distant past. Another important figure was Parshvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara, who lived around the 8th or 7th century BCE.

Despite their many disagreements, these schools share common themes. Most focus on the ultimate goal of liberation. This means being free from dukkha, which is suffering. They also seek freedom from samsara, the cycle of birth and rebirth. This liberation is called moksha or nirvana.

To reach this goal, many use spiritual practices like meditation or renunciation. They all seek to understand the true nature of existence.