Hindu philosophy

Hindu philosophy, also known as Vedic philosophy, is a vast collection of systems. These systems grew alongside early Hindu religious traditions. They developed during the iron and classical ages of India. In the context of Indian philosophy, the term for philosophy is Darshana. This Sanskrit word means "viewpoint" or "perspective." It comes from a root meaning to see or to experience. This suggests that philosophy is a way of perceiving reality.

Philosophical schools are often categorized by their relationship to the Vedas. The Vedas are the oldest collection of Sanskrit texts. The āstika schools are considered orthodox because they accept the Vedas as authoritative. These schools also accept the existence of the Ātman, or the eternal Self. The nāstika schools are considered heterodox because they reject Vedic authority. Some nāstika groups also interpret or reject the concept of the Ātman.

There are six main orthodox Darshanas. Samkhya is an early school of dualism. It explores the relationship between consciousness, called purusha, and matter, called prakriti. Yoga emerged from Samkhya and adds practical techniques. It uses meditation and breathwork to achieve liberation. Nyaya is a school focused on logic and epistemology. It emphasizes direct realism and the sources of knowledge. Vaisheshika is an offshoot of Nyaya. It is an empiricist school that focuses on atomism and naturalism.

The remaining two orthodox schools are Mimamsa and Vedanta. Mimamsa is known as Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā because it focuses on earlier Vedic texts. It emphasizes ritual, faith, and religious obligations. Vedanta is also called Uttara-Mimamsa. It focuses on the final section of the Vedas. Vedanta became the dominant current of Hinduism in the post-medieval period. It considers the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita as authoritative. Within Vedanta, various traditions like Advaita, Vishishtadvaita, and Dvaita have evolved.

Several prominent nāstika schools exist outside the orthodox tradition. Buddhism is based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha. A central Buddhist doctrine is the denial of the Ātman, or the unchanging self. Jainism is another major school. It follows twenty-four teachers known as tirthankaras. The first was Rishabha, and the twenty-fourth was Mahavira. Jainism accepts the existence of the Ātman. Charvaka is a school of materialism that accepted free will. In contrast, the Ajivika school was a materialist system that denied free will.

History shows that these classifications have changed over time. The six orthodox schools emerged before the start of the Common Era. Some may have appeared even before the Buddha. The specific schema of the "six systems" was created between the 12th and 16th centuries. This work was done by Vedantins. Later, Western Indologists adopted this classification. The medieval scholar Madhavacharya listed sixteen different systems in the 14th century. This included various sub-schools that combined different ideas.

Many complex sub-schools have developed through syncretism. Syncretism occurs when different traditions combine their ideas. For example, some sub-schools integrate theistic ideas with orthodox concepts. Pāśupata Śaiva and Śaiva siddhānta are examples of these theistic sub-schools. Raseśvara is a Shaiva school that advocated using mercury to reach immortality. Some sub-schools even share Tantric ideas with Buddhist traditions. These schools often adopt elements like the realism of Nyaya or the self-discipline of Yoga. This diversity shows how deeply these ideas interact with one another.