Targum

A targum is a special kind of translation and explanation.

Originally, these were spoken words rather than written text. A professional translator, called a meturgeman, would perform this job. They would translate the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic for the listeners. This was helpful because many people spoke Aramaic in their daily lives. By the end of the first century BCE, Hebrew was mostly used for school or worship. The translator did more than just swap words. They often added explanations, examples, or paraphrases to the text. This made the translation feel like a sermon. The word itself comes from an early Semitic root. It also relates to the Akkadian term targummanu, which means interpreter.

How these translations worked changed over a long time. At first, writing them down was actually not allowed. Some written versions appeared as early as the middle of the first century BCE. However, religious leaders did not see them as official at that time. Later, some Jewish traditions began to accept certain written versions. These included Targum Onkelos and Targum Jonathan. These two are very important for religious services. In the Babylonian Talmud, they are called "our Targum." They were given an official status by these traditions. In old synagogues, they were read right alongside the Hebrew scriptures. For example, Onkelos was read with the Torah. Jonathan was read with the Nevi'im, or the Prophets.

History shows us many different versions of these texts. Some scholars think the most famous ones started in Syria Palestina. They have a linguistic layer of Jewish Palestinian Aramaic. Even though they were later "orientalised," their origins remain visible. By the 10th century, most Jewish groups stopped speaking Aramaic. Because of this, the public reading of the Targum was stopped in most places. Yemen is a well-known exception where the tradition continued. Even when people stopped speaking the language, private study continued. The Targum remained a major source for explaining the Bible. For instance, the famous commentator Rashi used them as a source. In 1541, Elia Levita published a book to explain the Aramaic words.

There are also many other interesting groups of Targumim. Most books in the Ketuvim, or "The Writings," have their own versions. These often came from Palestine rather than Mesopotamia. They were sometimes harder to find because they were not used in every service. One large group is called the Palestinian Targumim. A very important one is Targum Neofiti I. It is quite large and covers 450 folios of the Pentateuch. Another group consists of the Cairo Geniza Fragment Targums. Some of these are very old, dating to around the seventh century. There are also fragments found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. Even Syriac Christians have a version called the Peshitta. This translation was likely made before the year 300.

Today, these ancient translations still connect to the modern world. Many Jewish editions of the Tanakh still print the Targum next to the Hebrew text. This helps people study the meaning of the words. Scholars also use these texts to help study the history of the Bible. They are used in text-critical editions to see how meanings changed. The Targumim also show how people interpreted stories. They often used allegorical readings instead of literal ones. This means they explained things using symbols rather than just physical descriptions. This way of thinking is noted by thinkers like Maimonides. These old translations help us see how people have wondered about the world for centuries.