Targum

A targum is a special translation.

Long ago, many people spoke Aramaic. But holy books were in Hebrew. This made it hard to understand.

A translator would speak the words aloud. They would explain the stories too. This helped the people listen.

Some people still use these translations. Yemenite Jews use them in worship.

It is a way to learn. People can hear and know the words.

A targum is a type of translation.

Long ago, many people spoke Aramaic. But holy books were written in Hebrew. This made it hard for many to understand. A professional translator would help. They would speak the words aloud in Aramaic. They also gave explanations and examples. This made the translation feel like a sermon.

At first, people did not write these down. Later, some became very famous. Two important ones are Targum Onkelos and Targum Jonathan. People in the Talmud gave them official status. In old synagogues, they were read alongside the holy books. This custom still happens in Yemenite Jewish synagogues today.

There are also other versions. Some people call them the Palestinian Targumim. One large group is called Targum Neofiti I. It covers many books. There are also fragments found in Cairo. These are old pieces of writing. Some people also use a version called the Peshitta. This is used by Syriac Christians. It may have been made before the year 300. These translations help people study and learn.

A targum is a special kind of translation and explanation.

Originally, these were spoken words rather than written text. A professional translator, called a meturgeman, would perform this job. They would translate the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic for the listeners. This was helpful because many people spoke Aramaic in their daily lives. By the end of the first century BCE, Hebrew was mostly used for school or worship. The translator did more than just swap words. They often added explanations, examples, or paraphrases to the text. This made the translation feel like a sermon. The word itself comes from an early Semitic root. It also relates to the Akkadian term targummanu, which means interpreter.

How these translations worked changed over a long time. At first, writing them down was actually not allowed. Some written versions appeared as early as the middle of the first century BCE. However, religious leaders did not see them as official at that time. Later, some Jewish traditions began to accept certain written versions. These included Targum Onkelos and Targum Jonathan. These two are very important for religious services. In the Babylonian Talmud, they are called "our Targum." They were given an official status by these traditions. In old synagogues, they were read right alongside the Hebrew scriptures. For example, Onkelos was read with the Torah. Jonathan was read with the Nevi'im, or the Prophets.

History shows us many different versions of these texts. Some scholars think the most famous ones started in Syria Palestina. They have a linguistic layer of Jewish Palestinian Aramaic. Even though they were later "orientalised," their origins remain visible. By the 10th century, most Jewish groups stopped speaking Aramaic. Because of this, the public reading of the Targum was stopped in most places. Yemen is a well-known exception where the tradition continued. Even when people stopped speaking the language, private study continued. The Targum remained a major source for explaining the Bible. For instance, the famous commentator Rashi used them as a source. In 1541, Elia Levita published a book to explain the Aramaic words.

There are also many other interesting groups of Targumim. Most books in the Ketuvim, or "The Writings," have their own versions. These often came from Palestine rather than Mesopotamia. They were sometimes harder to find because they were not used in every service. One large group is called the Palestinian Targumim. A very important one is Targum Neofiti I. It is quite large and covers 450 folios of the Pentateuch. Another group consists of the Cairo Geniza Fragment Targums. Some of these are very old, dating to around the seventh century. There are also fragments found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. Even Syriac Christians have a version called the Peshitta. This translation was likely made before the year 300.

Today, these ancient translations still connect to the modern world. Many Jewish editions of the Tanakh still print the Targum next to the Hebrew text. This helps people study the meaning of the words. Scholars also use these texts to help study the history of the Bible. They are used in text-critical editions to see how meanings changed. The Targumim also show how people interpreted stories. They often used allegorical readings instead of literal ones. This means they explained things using symbols rather than just physical descriptions. This way of thinking is noted by thinkers like Maimonides. These old translations help us see how people have wondered about the world for centuries.

A targum is a specialized translation and interpretation of the Hebrew Bible.

The term refers to both the written text and the oral performance of these translations. Originally, these were spoken renderings provided by a professional translator known as a meturgeman. This practice became necessary near the end of the first century BCE. At that time, Hebrew was primarily used for schooling and worship. Most people spoke Aramaic in their daily lives. The translator would provide the text in this common language so the listeners could understand. This process was not just a literal word-for-word swap. The meturgeman often used paraphrases, explanations, and examples. This transformed the translation into something resembling a sermon.

The mechanism of the targum involved a complex blend of translation and argumentation. The verb tirgem, which relates to the noun, can mean both "to translate" and "to explain." This dual purpose allowed the translator to clarify difficult passages. Many targumim reflect a style of midrashic interpretation. This means they use stories or explanations to expand on the text. A notable feature of these interpretations is the use of allegorical readings. This approach favors symbolic meanings over anthropomorphisms, which are descriptions that give human traits to non-human things. The philosopher Maimonides noted this tendency in his work, The Guide for the Perplexed. This interpretive style applied to both literal translations and those with heavy expansions.

There are distinct types of targumim categorized by the part of the Bible they cover. The two most significant for liturgical use are Targum Onkelos and Targum Jonathan. Targum Onkelos is used for the Torah, which is the first part of the Hebrew Bible. Targum Jonathan is used for the Nevi'im, or the Prophets. In the Babylonian Talmud, these two are referred to as "targum dilan," meaning "our Targum." This title gave them an official status within Jewish tradition. Other versions exist for the Ketuvim, also known as "The Writings." While the Talmud states there are no official targumim for the Ketuvim, many such translations exist. These often originated in Palestine and include versions for Psalms, Proverbs, and Job.

The history of these texts shows a shift from oral tradition to written scholarship. Initially, writing down the targum was prohibited. However, some written versions appeared as early as the middle of the first century BCE. These early writings were not considered authoritative by religious leaders. Over time, traditions from Lower Mesopotamia began to accept certain written versions as authoritative. One major historical shift occurred around the 10th century. As most Jewish communities stopped speaking Aramaic, the public reading of the targum was abandoned. The Yemenite Jewish community is a notable exception that continued the practice. Even when the spoken language faded, the targum remained a vital source for Jewish exegesis and private study.

Specific manuscripts provide deep insight into the variety of these traditions. The Palestinian Targumim consist of several important manuscript groups. Targum Neofiti I is the largest of these, consisting of 450 folios. It covers the Pentateuch with only a few damaged verses. Another group is the Cairo Geniza Fragment Targums, which were found in a synagogue in Cairo. Some of these manuscripts, such as A and E, are very old and date to the seventh century. There are also fragments found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. Additionally, Syriac Christians use a translation called the Peshitta. Scholars believe the Peshitta was likely translated before the year 300.

Significant figures and publications have helped preserve the study of the targum. In 1541, Elia Levita published the Sefer Meturgeman. This book explained the Aramaic words found in Targum Onkelos, Targum Jonathan, and pseudo-Jonathan. The existence of pseudo-Jonathan is a result of a historical labeling error. A printer mistakenly interpreted the abbreviation TY to mean Targum Yonathan instead of Targum Yerushalmi. Scholars have since clarified that this text is actually a Western Aramaic version. These historical errors highlight how much work scholars do to organize and understand ancient texts. These efforts ensure that the linguistic nuances of the original translations are not lost.

Today, the targum remains connected to broader fields of study and religious life. Most modern Jewish editions of the Tanakh still print the Targum alongside the Hebrew text. This allows readers to access the traditional interpretations during study. In academic circles, targumim are used in text-critical editions of the Bible. They help scholars understand how meanings and readings changed over centuries. The study of these texts links linguistics, history, and theology. By examining the targum, researchers can trace the evolution of religious thought and the movement of people across the ancient world.