Russia

Russia, officially known as the Russian Federation, is the largest country on Earth.

It spans across two continents: Eastern Europe and North Asia. This massive territory covers eleven different time zones. Russia shares land borders with fourteen separate countries. With a population exceeding 140 million people, it is the most populous nation in Europe. It also ranks as the ninth-most populous country globally. Many Russians live in highly urbanized areas. In fact, sixteen of its urban areas contain more than 1 million inhabitants. Moscow is the capital and the largest metropolitan area in Europe. Saint Petersburg serves as the second-largest city and a major cultural center.

Human history in this region began during the Lower Paleolithic period. Very early humans, such as Homo erectus, reached the Taman Peninsula about 2 million years ago. Fossils from Denisova Cave show that archaic human hybrids lived in the Altai Mountains. Some Neanderthals also survived in the region until about 45,000 years ago. Later, modern humans established significant settlements in Western Siberia. The Volga-Dnieper region is also considered a possible home for early Indo-European populations. These groups spread various languages and traditions across much of Eurasia. Over time, the East Slavs settled the land between modern Moscow and Saint Petersburg. They slowly assimilated the native Finno-Ugrian peoples who lived there before them.

In the 9th century, the East Slavs formed a state called Kievan Rus'. This happened as Varangians, or Vikings, traveled along waterways from the Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas. According to the Primary Chronicle, a leader named Rurik was elected in Novgorod in 862. His successor, Oleg, conquered Kiev in 882 to expand the state. Kievan Rus' became a prosperous European power during the 10th and 11th centuries. In 988, the state adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire. This era is often called the Golden Age of Kiev. However, the state eventually fragmented into smaller principalities due to internal fighting. This decline made the region vulnerable to the Mongol invasion between 1237 and 1240. The Mongols formed the Golden Horde, which ruled the area for two centuries.

Following the Mongol period, the Grand Principality of Moscow began unifying Russian lands. This process led to the creation of the Tsardom of Russia in 1547. By the early 18th century, the state had grown through conquest and exploration. In 1721, it was officially proclaimed the Russian Empire. This empire became the third-largest in history. The 20th century brought massive political shifts. The Russian Revolution of 1917 abolished monarchic rule. This led to the creation of the world's first constitutionally socialist state. Following a civil war, the Soviet Union was established. During the 1930s, the Soviet Union underwent rapid industrialization. However, this period of totalitarianism under Joseph Stalin also resulted in millions of deaths.

The Soviet Union played a decisive role during World War II. It led large-scale military efforts on the Eastern Front to support the Allies. After the war, the Soviet Union emerged as a global superpower. It entered the Cold War, competing with the United States for international influence. This era also produced incredible technological milestones. The Soviet Union launched the first human-made satellite into space. They also achieved the first human expedition into outer space. These achievements changed how humanity views the cosmos.

In 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved. This led to the emergence of the independent Russian Federation.

Modern Russia uses a federal semi-presidential system. This structure was established after a constitutional crisis in 1993. Since the turn of the century, the political system has been dominated by Vladimir Putin. Observers note that the country has experienced democratic backsliding under his leadership. Russia has also been involved in several military conflicts. These include a war with Georgia in 2008 and a war with Ukraine that began in 2014. The conflict in Ukraine has involved the occupation of territories like Crimea.

These events have significant impacts on international relations and regional stability.

Today, Russia is considered a great power with significant regional influence. It possesses the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons in the world. The country also has the third-highest military expenditure globally. Its economy is one of the largest and relies on vast natural resources. Russia is a major producer of oil and natural gas.

The nation is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. It also hosts 32 UNESCO World Heritage Sites. While it has a powerful economy, the country ranks low in measurements of media freedom and human rights. It remains a central player in global politics and energy markets.