Representative democracy

Representative democracy, often called indirect or electoral democracy, is a system where citizens elect delegates to represent them. In this model, people do not vote on every individual policy or law. Instead, they choose representatives to make those decisions on their behalf. This differs from direct democracy, where the entire population votes on every initiative. Most modern Western-style democracies operate this way. Examples include the United Kingdom, a unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy, and Germany, a federal parliamentary republic. France functions as a unitary semi-presidential republic, while the United States is a federal presidential republic.

These elected officials typically gather in a body called a legislature. A legislature can be unicameral, meaning it has one chamber. It can also be bicameral, which means it has two chambers. Some systems are even multicameral, containing more than two chambers. In bicameral systems, members of the different chambers are often elected through different methods. For instance, the Senate of Canada and the British House of Lords are not elected. The primary role of these representatives is to serve in the legislature and pass laws. In some parliamentary systems, representatives also hold the power to select a prime minister or other government officers.

To prevent any single group from having too much power, most representative democracies use a constitution. This document sets the rules for what representatives can and cannot do. An independent judiciary, such as a supreme court or constitutional court, can declare legislative acts unconstitutional. Some systems also include elements of deliberative democracy, like Royal Commissions. There may also be direct measures like referendums or recall elections. However, legal power usually stays with the elected representatives. This structure helps balance the authority of the government with the rule of law.

Once elected, a representative may adopt different roles. An elected official who follows the exact wishes of their voters acts as a delegate. Conversely, a representative who uses their own judgment and knowledge is acting as a trustee. This distinction was noted by Edmund Burke, who argued that representatives should use their own judgment even if it differs from the voters' views. In some cases, a representative serves a specific geographic district. In these districts, voters may have many different beliefs. In contrast, proportional representation systems elect members via groups of votes that form an unanimous constituency. This ensures that the representative and the voters hold shared sentiments.

History shows that these ideas have evolved over many centuries. The Roman Republic was the first known Western state to use representative government. Although Roman assemblies practiced direct government, the Roman model inspired future thinkers. Modern democracies imitate the Roman model by having supreme power held by the people and their elected representatives. In medieval Europe, a tradition emerged of selecting representatives from various estates to advise monarchs. In Britain, representative government grew significantly during the thirteenth century. The Oxford Parliament of 1258 limited the king's authority. Later, Simon de Montfort's Parliament of 1265 included both noblemen and citizens from towns.

Significant changes occurred during the 17th and 18th centuries. The Parliament of England implemented liberal democracy ideas, leading to the Bill of Rights in 1689. The American Revolution resulted in the 1787 Constitution, which established a national legislature. In the United States, Senators were not directly elected by the people until the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. In France, the National Convention was elected by all males in 1792. Over the 19th and 20th centuries, the voting franchise widened. Women, Black people, and those without property eventually gained the right to vote through new laws.

Despite its widespread use, representative democracy faces various criticisms and challenges. Some political theorists, such as Robert Dahl, have referred to this system as polyarchy. Research suggests that representative systems can be biased toward affluent classes. Robert Michels argued in 1911 that these systems might deteriorate into an oligarchy. This concept is known as the "iron law of oligarchy," where a small group gains control. Additionally, elected officials may not always fulfill their campaign promises. They might instead pursue their own self-interests once they are in office. Data from the V-Dem Institute shows that the index of electoral democracy peaked in 2012 but has since declined.