Parmenion

Parmenion was a highly influential Macedonian general during the 4th century BC. He served as a top military leader under two major kings: Philip II and his son, Alexander the Great. As a nobleman, Parmenion rose through the ranks to become Philip II's chief lieutenant. Later, he served as the *strategos*, or military general, for Alexander. His career was defined by his vast experience and his ability to manage large armies. Because of his high status, many of his relatives also held important roles in the Macedonian military.

Parmenion's military career began with significant successes under King Philip II. In 356 BC, he achieved a major victory over the Illyrians. Ten years later, he destroyed the southern Thessalian town of Halos. He also acted as a Macedonian delegate to help negotiate peace with Athens in 346 BC. In 336 BC, Philip II sent Parmenion to Anatolia with an army of 10,000 men. Their mission was to prepare for the liberation of Greeks living under Persian rule. However, the sudden murder of Philip II caused the Macedonian troops to lose morale. This led to a defeat near Magnesia against Persian forces led by Memnon of Rhodes.

When Alexander became king in October 336 BC, Parmenion helped secure the new ruler's power. A general named Attalus opposed Alexander's accession to the throne. Even though Attalus was Parmenion's father-in-law, Parmenion ordered him to be put to death. Parmenion believed this was necessary to ensure a smooth transition for Alexander. This act of loyalty put Alexander in Parmenion's debt. As a result, Alexander placed many of Parmenion's relatives in key positions. His son Philotas commanded the Companion cavalry, a unit of 1,800 horsemen. His youngest son Nikanor led the Shield bearers infantry regiment. His son-in-law Coenus commanded a phalanx battalion, and another relative named Nicanor served as an admiral.

In 334 BC, Alexander and Parmenion began their massive campaign against the Persian Empire. They used a specific battle formation where Parmenion commanded the left wing. Alexander himself led the right wing. This division allowed the army to cover more ground and strike from different angles. Parmenion was known for his orthodox strategy, which means he followed traditional and careful military methods. This often contrasted with Alexander's more innovative and risky tactics. During the Battle of Granicus, Parmenion advised Alexander to delay the attack because the men were tired. While some sources say Alexander ignored this, others suggest he eventually followed a plan to cross the river at night to surprise the Persians.

Parmenion played a vital role in several major conquests across Asia Minor. After the victory at the Granicus river, he captured the stronghold of Dascylium. He also seized the cities of Magnesia and Tralleis. While Alexander liberated Greek towns like Ephesus and Miletus, Parmenion invaded central Anatolia from the west. In April 333 BC, the two commanders met at Gordium, the capital of Phrygia. They then moved east to Cilicia, where Parmenion helped capture the city of Tarsus. At the Battle of Issus in November 333 BC, the Macedonian army faced a much larger Persian force. Parmenion's ability to counter the Persian attack allowed Alexander to launch a successful counter-attack and win the battle.

Despite his successes, Parmenion's relationship with Alexander became strained during the later campaigns. At the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, Parmenion led the *pezhetairos*, or infantry, on the left flank. Some ancient historians, such as Plutarch, suggested that Parmenion's leadership was ineffective or that he was jealous of Alexander. However, Parmenion remained a critical influence and a steady commander until the conquest of Babylon. His role was to hold the left side of the line so that Alexander could deliver the decisive blow with the cavalry. This strategic balance was a core part of the Macedonian philosophy of battle.

The end of Parmenion's life came during a period of intense political suspicion. After the conquest of Drangiana, Alexander learned that Parmenion's son, Philotas, was involved in a conspiracy against him. Philotas was convicted and put to death by the army. Although there was no proof that Parmenion was involved in the plot, Alexander feared the general might become a threat. Parmenion commanded a large army and was stationed near the royal treasury and supply lines. To prevent any possible rebellion, Alexander sent two officers, Cleander and Sitalces II, on racing camels across the desert. The officers arrived in Media and assassinated Parmenion in 330 BC before he could even learn of his son's death.