Parallel Lives

The *Parallel Lives*, or *Bíoi Parállēloi*, is a famous series of biographies. A Greco-Roman philosopher and priest named Plutarch wrote them in Greek. He likely began this work at the start of the second century. These books do not function as traditional histories. Instead, they serve as literary biographies designed to explore human character. Plutarch wanted to see how personal virtues or failings shaped a person's destiny. He looked at the psychological motivations behind famous actions. By doing this, he turned historical figures into "moral actors." He hoped his readers would use these stories to examine themselves and improve.

Plutarch used a specific method to organize his writing. He arranged the biographies in pairs to highlight similarities. Each pair typically consists of one Greek and one Roman leader. For example, he paired Alexander the Great with Julius Caesar. He also compared the Greek Demosthenes with the Roman Cicero. There are 23 such pairs surviving today. Some biographies stand alone without a partner. These include the lives of Artaxerxes, Aratus, Galba, and Otho. Traces suggest twelve other single lives were once part of the collection but are now lost.

To create these comparisons, Plutarch often focused on moral analysis. He sometimes neglected historical context to build a perfect character portrait. This meant he might deviate from his sources to create a specific counterpart. For instance, his description of Eumenes was an artificial creation. He shaped Eumenes to serve as a moral match for the Roman leader Sertorius. Because of this, scholars view the work as literature rather than strict history. Plutarch was more interested in the "soul of men" than in a simple timeline of events.

Finding accurate information was a major challenge for Plutarch. The men he wrote about had died nearly 300 years before his time. He relied on ancient manuscripts that were often inaccurate. Plutarch himself expressed doubt about the reliability of past records. He believed the passage of time obscures the truth. He also noted that writers of the past might twist facts to flatter or hurt people. Despite these difficulties, his work provided deep insights into the era of the subjects.

The *Parallel Lives* survived the Early Middle Ages because they were widely circulated in Rome. The first printed edition appeared in Rome around 1470. It was translated from Greek into Latin. Other translations followed quickly in different languages. An Italian version appeared in 1482, and a Spanish version arrived in 1491. A German translation was completed in 1541. A French translation by Amyot in 1559 became an immediate and massive success. This version was so popular that it was often pirated by printers.

These translations had a huge impact on Western literature. Amyot's French version served as the basis for Thomas North's 1579 English translation. This English version was very important to William Shakespeare. It provided source material for his plays *Coriolanus*, *Julius Caesar*, and *Antony and Cleopatra*. Later, in 1683, a new English edition was published. This one was translated directly from the original Greek. It is often called "Dryden's translation" because the poet John Dryden served as its editor.

Many famous thinkers have praised Plutarch's work over the centuries. The philosopher Montaigne said the books helped him learn. The composer Beethoven credited Plutarch with helping him find resignation during his struggle with deafness. General Gordon suggested the lives be used as a handbook for young officers. Ralph Waldo Emerson even called the collection a "bible for heroes." Modern scholars still debate the specific details of the lives. However, they agree that Plutarch's ability to capture the essence of a person is unmatched.