Victorian era

The Victorian era refers to the period of Queen Victoria's reign in the United Kingdom. Her rule began on 20 June 1837, after the death of her uncle, William IV. It lasted until her death on 22 January 1901. This reign spanned 63 years and seven months. This was a longer reign than any of her predecessors. Some historians use the term "long Victorian era" to describe a broader period. This wider definition might start with the Reform Act of 1832. This era is often seen as a time of peace, progress, and political liberalism.

Historians often divide this long era into three distinct stages. Michael Sadleir suggested that the period was not a single uniform block. He identified early Victorianism from 1837 to 1850 as a time of social and political unrest. He then noted a "mid-Victorian heyday" from 1851 to the 1870s. This middle period was defined by prosperity and a sense of complacency. Finally, late Victorianism began around 1880. This final stage was characterized by new waves of imperialism and aestheticism. These shifts show that the era was actually full of changing values.

Political life in the United Kingdom underwent significant transformations through several Reform Acts. The first major change was the Reform Act of 1832. This act began to change the electoral system in England and Wales. Later, the Second Reform Act of 1867 expanded the franchise, or the right to vote. The Third Reform Act of 1884 introduced the principle of one vote per household. These laws helped to reduce corruption and simplify the voting process. Historian Bruce L. Kinzer notes that these reforms helped create a path toward democracy. However, many people remained excluded from this system. Most women and a large minority of men could not vote during this time.

During this time, Britain was a dominant global power. This period of relative peace between great powers is known as the Pax Britannica. The British Empire expanded rapidly across the globe. Britain participated in various military conflicts against smaller powers. One notable conflict was the Crimean War from 1853 to 1856. In this war, Britain fought against Russia. Russia was viewed as a threat to India and the Ottoman Empire. Within the empire, Britain also dealt with various revolts. The empire saw the complete abolition of slavery in its African possessions. It also ended the practice of transporting convicts to Australia.

Social structures shifted as a new middle class rose to prominence. This group eventually replaced the aristocracy as the dominant social class. The middle class established a specific lifestyle that influenced all of society. They placed a high value on family life and romantic love in marriage. A clear boundary formed between the private home and the public workplace. Women were often expected to manage the home while men acted as breadwinners. This domestic ideal placed restrictions on the liberty of certain groups. Because of these limitations, a feminist movement began to develop.

Education and literacy saw massive improvements for the public. For the first time, state-funded schools were established in England and Wales. Education became compulsory for pre-teenaged children in England, Scotland, and Wales. As a result, literacy rates grew very quickly. By the end of the century, literacy was nearly universal in Great Britain. However, life was not prosperous for everyone. The Great Famine in Ireland between 1845 and 1852 caused mass starvation and death. This event led to large-scale emigration. In British cities, many people lived in crowded slum housing. Disease remained a severe problem for these populations.

Technological and scientific advancements defined the era's economy. Britain led the world in industry and engineering. This rapid development was fueled by the Industrial Revolution. While industry grew, the period also faced a "Victorian Crisis of Faith." This occurred when new scientific knowledge challenged traditional religious views. People had to readjust their beliefs to accommodate these discoveries. Despite these tensions, the era saw the rise of new popular culture. Photography became a common way to capture daily life. New sports like football, rugby, and cycling became popular. These developments helped move the world toward the modern age.