Society

A society is a large group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction. These groups often share the same spatial or social territory. Most societies are subject to the same political authority and cultural expectations. A society is defined by its social relations. These are the patterns of relationships between people who share a distinctive culture and institutions. You can think of a society as the sum total of all these relationships among its members.

Human social structures are highly complex and cooperative. They rely on the specialization of labor through specific social roles. Societies create these roles by deciding which actions are acceptable or unacceptable. These expectations are known as societal norms. Through collaboration, a society allows members to achieve things that would be difficult alone. Humans shape society, but society also shapes human beings.

Biologists note that humans are highly social animals. Our closest relatives, bonobos and chimpanzees, are also social. Some biologists, like E.O. Wilson, categorize humans as eusocial. This term places humans with ants at the highest level of social organization. Human societies differ from chimpanzee groups in several ways. We use language to communicate and have males who play parental roles. We also build "nests," which include multigenerational camps, towns, or cities.

Sociologists use different theories to understand how these groups function. Functionalism views society as a system where individuals work like organs in a body. Auguste Comte and Émile Durkheim believed society was a separate level of reality. Conflict theory offers a different view. Karl Marx argued that social groups interact based on conflict rather than agreement. He believed an economic "base" determines the "superstructure" of government and culture.

Another perspective is symbolic interactionism. This is a microsociological theory focusing on how individuals relate to society. It studies how humans use shared language to create common symbols and meanings. These symbols help create the worlds in which we live. In the late 20th century, theorists began viewing society as socially constructed. Sociologist Peter L. Berger described this as a "dialectic" process. This means humans create society, and that creation then molds humans.

Non-Western thinkers have also provided vital systematic approaches. In the 14th century, Ibn Khaldun studied social structures. He identified two fundamental forms: nomadic and sedentary. He argued nomadic life has high social cohesion, or "asabijja," due to kinship and shared needs. Sedentary life, however, often sees decreased cohesion and increased luxury. Later, the Filipino nationalist José Rizal studied colonial societies. He argued that colonial policies in the Philippines caused economic disorder and decreased interest in work.

Sociologists also classify societies by their level of technology. These include pre-industrial, industrial, and postindustrial categories. Pre-industrial societies are often subdivided by how they produce food. Hunter-gatherer societies rely on wild plants and animals. They move constantly and usually live in small groups of fewer than 50 people. Anthropologist Marshall Sahlins called them the "original affluent society" because they had much leisure time.

Other pre-industrial types include pastoral and horticultural societies. Pastoralists rely on domesticated herd animals and often live a nomadic life. While individual communities are small, pastoral societies can include thousands of people. Horticultural societies emerged about 10,000 years ago. They use human labor and simple tools to grow food in garden plots. By rotating these plots, they can stay in one area for long periods. This allows them to build permanent or semi-permanent villages.