Second language

A second language, often called an L2, is any language spoken in addition to a person's first language, or L1.

This extra language might be one spoken by neighbors or another language used in a person's home country. It can also be a foreign language. A person's dominant language is the one they use most often or feel most comfortable using. However, the dominant language is not always the same as the first language. For example, the Canadian census defines a first language as the one a person first learned at home in childhood and still understands. Sometimes, a person might lose their earliest language through a process called language attrition. This often happens when young children move to a new environment or start school.

Researchers study how people gain these languages through a field called second-language acquisition, or SLA. This field uses ideas from both linguistics and psychology to understand the process. One major linguistic theory suggests the brain contains a special module with innate knowledge for language. In contrast, many psychological theories propose that general cognitive mechanisms handle language learning. Other research areas include behaviorism, which looks at verbal behavior and speech responses. Scholars also use contrastive analysis to examine the similarities and differences between languages. They also study inter-language, which views a learner's language as a dynamic, rule-governed system.

Stephen Krashen made a famous distinction between two ways of gaining language: acquisition and learning.

Acquisition is a natural process that happens when a student partakes in real communicative situations. Learning is a conscious process that involves studying isolated grammatical rules. In learning, error correction is a common part of the experience. While some educators disagree with this distinction, it remains a major part of SLA study. Because of these different theories, many teaching methods exist. These include the grammar-translation method, the direct method, and the audio-lingual method. Other styles include the Silent Way, suggestopedia, and the communicative approach.

Age plays a massive role in how well someone learns an L2. Linguist Eric Lenneberg defined a second language as one acquired after puberty. This is closely tied to the critical period hypothesis. Researcher Hyltenstam found that age six or seven is a common cut-off for achieving native-like proficiency. After this age, learners might make few errors, but they often still sound different from native speakers. Later, Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson suggested there is no exact cut-off point. Instead, they argued that it simply becomes more difficult to reach native-like levels as we get older. Some hypothesize that during puberty, brain processes shift from language to other functions like the frontal lobe's cognitive tasks.

Learning speed also changes based on a person's age. Adults and older children actually progress through early stages of syntax and morphology faster than younger children. This is true when time and exposure are held constant. However, children still reach full fluency much faster than adults do. Research by Gauthier and Genesee shows that early experiences with one language can affect L2 acquisition. Even during the critical period, children with certain early experiences might learn a second language more slowly. Additionally, learning many languages early can lead to a "double sense of national belonging." This can affect how students relate to their own cultures and national identities.

The way teachers correct mistakes has changed a lot over the last century. In the 1950s and 1960s, teachers believed all errors must be corrected at all costs. By the 1970s, researchers like Dulay and Burt found that learners acquire grammar in a set, unalterable order. Terrell's 1977 studies showed that a student's self-esteem and emotions are just as important as cognitive processing. In the 1980s, the strict corrective approach became outdated. Many researchers argued that constant correction actually hindered learning. They believed it was better to create a warm, low-stress environment. Stephen Krashen was a major supporter of this hands-off approach.

In the 1990s, the idea of explicit grammar instruction returned to many classrooms. Researchers began looking for the most useful types of correction. In 1998, Lyster found that "recasts" are not always helpful because students might not notice them. However, his 2002 studies showed that students learn better when they recognize and correct their own errors. This is because active participation helps the learning process. Noam Chomsky also noted that children bridge the gap between the poor input they hear and their complete knowledge of grammar. He called this the "Poverty of Stimulus." This shows that both L1 and L2 learners have knowledge that goes beyond what they have actually heard.

Being bilingual offers many advantages in a globalized world. It allows people to communicate across different cultural backgrounds. However, the way language affects emotions can vary. A 2012 study by Optiz and Degner looked at sequential bilinguals, who learn an L2 after their L1. They found that these speakers often relate more strongly to emotions when they perceive them in their first language. This shows that our first language remains a deeply connected part of our emotional lives.