Misinformation

Misinformation refers to incorrect or misleading information. It can include inaccurate, incomplete, or false details. It also covers selective information or "half-truths." This concept is vital because it influences beliefs about medicine, politics, and communities. In January 2024, the World Economic Forum identified misinformation and disinformation as severe global risks. They noted these issues can widen societal and political divides. Understanding how information travels helps us navigate the modern world.

Scholars distinguish between three specific types of information disorder. The first is misinformation, which is false information shared without malicious intent. This often happens due to errors, misunderstandings, or a lack of knowledge. The second is disinformation, which is deliberately deceptive. People or organizations create disinformation to actively mislead an audience. Disinformation can be partially fabricated, exaggerated, or taken out of context. The third type is malinformation, which is true information used to cause harm. An example is sharing a politician's private details to shape public opinion.

These different types of information work through various mechanisms. Disinformation can cause direct harm by deceiving people. It can also cause indirect harm by undermining trust in communication. Misinformation often arises during emerging situations where facts are not yet verified. For example, scientific guidance on infant sleep positions has changed over time. This evolution in understanding can create confusion for new parents. Even if a mistake is corrected, it can still influence memory and actions.

History shows that misinformation campaigns have existed for hundreds of years. In Imperial and Renaissance Italy, people used anonymous verses called pasquinades to insult rivals. In pre-revolutionary France, printed papers known as "canards" used engravings to appear credible. During the summer of 1587, agents spread false reports of a Spanish victory. They hoped to convince Pope Sixtus V to release promised funds.

The 1835 "Great Moon Hoax" was the first large-scale disinformation campaign in America. It used articles to claim that humanoid bat-creatures lived on the moon.

Advancements in technology have changed how information spreads. In the 20th century, radio, television, and newspapers were major vehicles for news. Television allowed disinformation to reach millions of people very quickly. This could reinforce existing biases and make corrections difficult.

Today, social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and X enable even faster sharing. A 2018 Twitter study found that false information spreads faster and deeper than accurate info. On Facebook, misinformation is also more likely to be clicked on than factual news.

Misinformation has significant impacts on public health and society. During the COVID-19 pandemic, false stories about symptoms and treatments spread widely. This was made worse by a lack of health literacy. Some conspiracy theories, like the link between 5G and COVID-19, gained global traction. Research shows that vaccine misinformation lowered vaccination intent by 6.4% in the UK. It lowered intent by 2.4% in the US. Some creators even made money by posting false news to gain views and clicks.

Addressing misinformation also involves complex legal and political challenges. Some countries have created laws to combat disinformation. However, these policies can sometimes be used to restrict journalistic work. In some contexts, they limit political expression and reduce media freedom. This has even resulted in the imprisonment of editors and journalists. According to reports, the countries with the lowest media freedom in 2025 include Eritrea and North Korea. Understanding the balance between stopping lies and protecting speech is a major global task.