Humayun

Nasir al-Din Muhammad, known as Humayun, was the second Mughal emperor. He ruled territories in modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Northern India, and Pakistan. His reign was divided into two distinct periods. He first ruled from 1530 to 1540. After losing his lands, he regained them from 1555 until his death in 1556. By the time he died, the Mughal Empire spanned nearly one million square kilometers.

Humayun was born on March 6, 1508. His father was Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire. His mother was Māham Begum, who was related to the Timurid ruler of Herat. The Mughal dynasty followed specific traditions regarding leadership. Unlike many monarchies that use primogeniture, the Timurids followed a Central Asian practice. This meant the entire kingdom was not always left to the eldest son. Instead, territories were often divided among multiple sons.

When Humayun succeeded Babur on December 26, 1530, he was only 22 years old. He was an inexperienced ruler facing immediate challenges. His half-brother, Kamran Mirza, inherited Kabul and Kandahar. This division created bitter rivalry between the two brothers. Other brothers also revolted against Humayun's authority. One brother, Hindal Mirza, supported him but was later assassinated. These internal conflicts made Humayun's early reign very unstable.

Humayun faced powerful external enemies as well. Sultan Bahadur of Gujarat was a major rival to the southwest. Sher Shah Suri, also known as Sher Khan, was a threat to the east. In 1535, Humayun campaigned against Bahadur to protect Mughal lands. He successfully captured the forts of Mandu and Champaner. However, he stopped the campaign to consolidate his new territory. This pause allowed Bahadur to regain control of Gujarat in 1536.

The conflict with Sher Shah Suri became the most decisive struggle. In June 1539, the two leaders met at the Battle of Chausa. This battle took place on the banks of the Ganges River. The two sides initially attempted diplomacy to avoid a fight. They agreed to a plan where Mughal troops would charge and Sher Shah's troops would retreat. This was meant to satisfy the honor of both sides. However, Sher Shah broke the agreement. He attacked the Mughal camp at night while the soldiers were asleep.

Humayun narrowly escaped the disaster at Chausa. He survived by swimming across the Ganges River. He used an air-filled water skin to help him float. After this, he faced another major defeat at the Battle of Kannauj in 1540. This loss forced Humayun into exile for 15 years. He lived in the court of Shah Tahmasp I in Persia. During this exile, he eventually received Persian aid to reclaim his empire.

Humayun's return to power brought deep cultural changes to India. He returned with a large group of Persian noblemen. This shifted the Mughal court culture toward Persian influences. The dynasty's Central Asian roots were overshadowed by Persian art and literature. This era produced thousands of Persian manuscripts and beautiful stone carvings. These artistic traditions remained in the subcontinent for centuries.

Humayun's life was a cycle of loss and recovery. He faced betrayal from his own brothers, including Kamran and Hindal. Despite this, he followed his father's advice to show mercy to his family. His persistence allowed him to rebuild the empire. He left a substantial legacy for his son, Akbar. The foundation Humayun rebuilt helped the Mughal Empire grow even larger under his successor.