Hukou

The hukou system is a method of household registration used in the People's Republic of China. While the formal name for the entire administrative system is huji, the term hukou is used colloquially to describe both the system and an individual's specific residency status.

A hukou serves as an official record that identifies a person as a permanent resident of a specific area. This document includes vital identifying information such as a person's name, date of birth, and details regarding their parents and spouse. Because the household register is issued per family, it also functions as a family register. It tracks major life events for all family members, including births, deaths, marriages, divorces, and moves.

Mechanically, the system functions by categorizing citizens into distinct groups to manage population movement and social services. For much of its modern history, the system divided residents into two primary categories: agricultural and non-agricultural. These terms are often referred to as rural and urban status. This classification was directly linked to the social policies and benefits provided by the government. For example, urban residents often had access to specific benefits like retirement pensions, education, and healthcare. In contrast, rural citizens often had to provide for themselves without these same government-supported resources. This structure created a system where a person's legal status determined their access to essential social programs.

The system serves several specific administrative and economic functions. One primary goal is to manage rapid urbanization and control migration to megacities. By restricting how many people can move to large urban centers, the government aims to prevent severe overcrowding and infrastructure overload. This control also helps prevent the emergence of large-scale slums, which often occur in other developing countries when people move to cities too quickly. Furthermore, the system has been used to maintain social stability. By making city residents dependent on the government for daily needs, the state can exert more influence over urban populations. In the mid-20th century, the system also ensured food security by restricting peasants from leaving farms, which maintained necessary agricultural production.

The origins of household registration in China date back to the pre-dynastic era, specifically as early as the 21st century BC. Early models included the xiangsui system from the Western Zhou dynasty, which helped organize land. Another early method was the baojia system, which created groups of citizens held accountable for each other's actions. During the Qin dynasty, these methods were used for taxation, population control, and conscription. In the Han dynasty, the first Chancellor, Xiao He, established a "Households Code" as one of the nine basic law codes. This code used the registration system as a foundation for tax revenue and military service. Later, the 1911 Huji Law provided the first formal codification of these rules at the end of the Qing dynasty.

In the modern era, the system was shaped by the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949. The current form of the system was solidified by the 1958 Hukou Registration Regulation. At that time, China was a heavily agricultural nation. Approximately 89% of the population lived in rural areas, totaling about 484 million people. Only about 58 million people resided in urban areas. This massive imbalance meant the government used the hukou system to manage the flow of labor. The goal was to use the rural population to support urban industrialization by providing both agricultural goods and workers for state-owned businesses.

The significance of the hukou system is seen in its impact on China's economic development and social structure. Shahid Yusuf of the World Bank noted that the system acted as a "cornerstone of China's urbanization strategy." He suggested that by channeling migrants toward smaller or medium-sized cities, China avoided the widespread slum formation seen elsewhere. However, this success came with significant social costs. The system has been a source of inequality for decades, contributing to social stratification. Many rural workers have faced deprivation because they lack the benefits assigned to urban residents.

Because of these inequalities, the Chinese government has introduced various reforms to relax the restrictions. Since 1978, the central government has modified the system in response to a changing economy and social protests. A major milestone occurred in 2014, when new reforms were announced in March and July. These reforms included a provision that eliminated the formal division between agricultural and non-agricultural hukou status. These changes aim to address the gaps in social services and provide more flexibility for the millions of people moving within the country.