Goguryeo–Wei War

The Goguryeo–Wei War was a series of military invasions occurring between 244 and 245. These campaigns were launched by the Cao Wei state against the kingdom of Goguryeo. The conflict was a retaliation for a raid conducted by Goguryeo in 242. This war is viewed by historians as a watershed moment. A watershed moment is a turning point that divides history into different stages. For Goguryeo, the war marked a transition in how the state grew and functioned.

To understand the war, one must look at the political landscape of Northeast Asia. During the 1st and 2nd centuries BC, the Western Han dynasty extended control into the region. This created the Four Commanderies of Han. As the Han dynasty declined due to internal turmoil, local warlords like Gongsun Du took control of nearby areas. Goguryeo grew by conquering northern territories under Han rule. After a succession feud in 204, the Goguryeo leader Sansang moved the capital to Hwando. This new capital was located on the Yalu River near modern-day Ji'an.

Hwando was situated in a mountainous region with very little arable land. Arable land is soil that is good for growing crops. Because the land was not rich for farming, Goguryeo had to extract resources from other groups. They relied on tributary relationships with tribes like the Okjeo and Ye. The Okjeo people functioned almost as slaves, hauling cloth, fish, and salt to the Yalu basin. By the 230s, Goguryeo had regained strength and re-established itself in the Jolbon region. In 238, Goguryeo and the Cao Wei state even formed an alliance to defeat the warlord Gongsun Yuan.

The alliance between the two powers broke down in 242. King Dongcheon of Goguryeo sent troops to plunder Xi'anping. This district was located near the mouth of the Yalu River. Xi'anping was a crucial area because it provided agricultural land and sea access. It was also home to the Small River Maek people, who were known for their excellent bows. Most importantly, a Goguryeo presence there threatened land routes used by Cao Wei. The Cao Wei court saw this as a direct threat to their control of the Lelang and Daifang commanderies.

In 244, the Wei Inspector of You Province, Guanqiu Jian, launched the first campaign. He led seven legions, totaling 10,000 infantry and cavalry. King Dongcheon met him with an army of 20,000 soldiers. The two forces met at the junction of the Fu'er and Hunjiang rivers at a place called Liangkou. Historical accounts of this battle differ significantly. The Korean source, Samguk Sagi, claims Goguryeo won two initial battles. It states that King Dongcheon's forces killed 6,000 Wei soldiers before his final charge failed. In that final fight, 18,000 Goguryeo men were killed.

Following the battle at Liangkou, the Wei army chased the retreating Goguryeo forces. They reached a mountain pass known as Chengxian. Because the terrain was mountainous, the Wei cavalry could not be effective. The soldiers left their horses and chariots behind to climb toward the capital. Once they reached Hwando, the Wei army attacked the city. They caused widespread destruction and killed or captured thousands of people. King Dongcheon and his family were forced to flee. Guanqiu Jian eventually returned to You Province in June 245.

The war continued into a second campaign in 245. The Grand Administrator of Xuantu, Wang Qi, was sent to pursue the king. Since Hwando had been ravaged and left defenseless, the king had to flee again. He sought refuge in South Okjeo. This second wave of conflict left Goguryeo greatly diminished. The war broke the economic tributary ties with the surrounding tribes. It took Goguryeo nearly fifty years to rebuild its ruling structure. This period of reconstruction allowed the state to eventually evolve into a much more powerful political entity.