Funding of science

People need money to study the world. Scientists use this money for many jobs. Big companies give much of the money. Governments also give money to schools. Some groups give money to find cures for sickness. Long ago, only a few leaders gave money. Now, many different people can help. This helps more people become scientists. It is a great way to learn.

Scientists need money to study the world. This money is called research funding. Most money comes from two main places. Big companies provide the largest share. Governments also give much money to universities. Some small groups give money to find cures for diseases.

ways to fund science have changed over time. Long ago, only a few leaders gave money. In ancient China, officials funded schools of thought. In the Mayan Empire, people funded research for religion. In the 1700s, new science groups called academies began. These groups were funded by states. They helped science grow in new ways.

In the 1800s, many inventors used their own money. Later, big projects needed much more cash. The Manhattan Project used 27 billion dollars. Today, many people help fund new ideas. Some use crowdfunding to find money. This helps more people become scientists. It makes research open for everyone to see.

Scientific research needs money to happen. This money is called research funding. It covers many areas like nature, technology, and how people live. Most funding comes through a competitive process. This means people look at many different project ideas. They choose only the most promising ones to receive money. Experts often measure this spending using a term called GERD. GERD stands for gross domestic expenditure on research and development. It counts research done inside a country. It does not count money paid for research done in other lands.

There are two main sources for this money. Large corporations provide the biggest share of funding. They use their own research departments to find new things. Governments are the second largest source of money. They usually give funds to universities and special agencies. These agencies are often called research councils. Some smaller amounts of money come from charitable foundations. These groups often fund research to find cures for diseases. They help find treatments for things like cancer, malaria, and AIDS.

Ways to fund science have changed a lot over time. Long ago, a closed system existed. Only a few powerful leaders could give money. In the early Zhou dynasty, officials funded different schools of thought. These included ideas like Confucianism and Taoism. During the Mayan Empire, research was funded for religious reasons. They even made a Venus Table to track the stars. In the 1200s, a leader named Sultan Qalawun funded a hospital in Cairo. He chose to support medical science over religious science.

New ways of organizing research appeared later. Between 1700 and 1799, scientific academies became very important. These were funded by states and helped create new knowledge. In the 1800s, businessmen began paying for science in industry. Many inventors used their own money to build things. A system of patents was made to help them. Patents let inventors keep a profit for about twenty years. Some huge projects needed massive amounts of cash. The Manhattan Project cost $27 billion and used 130,000 people.

Today, science funding is very organized. Many companies invest in research to stay successful. Some researchers even use crowdfunding to find support. This is when many people give small amounts of money. More funders now want research to be open for everyone. They put data in places where anyone can see it. This is called open-access. As more people find ways to pay for science, it grows. A wider and more diverse group of people can become scientists.

Research funding is the financial support provided for scientific study. This support covers natural sciences, technology, and social sciences. Most funding occurs through a competitive process. In this system, experts evaluate many different research projects. They select only the most promising or economically viable ones to receive money. This ensures that resources are used effectively to drive progress. Scientists use this money to explore new ideas and solve complex problems.

To track how much a country spends on science, experts use a metric called Gross Domestic Expenditure on Research and Development, or GERD. GERD measures all research and development (R&D) performed within a country's borders. It includes money from foreign sources used inside the country. However, it excludes payments made for research performed in other nations. Researchers also use the GERD-to-GDP ratio. This compares research spending to a country's total economic output. It allows for easier comparisons between different nations.

There are several primary sources for research funding. Corporations provide the largest share through their internal R&D departments. According to the OECD, industry carries out more than 60% of scientific and technical R&D. Governments are the second largest source. They typically provide funds through universities and specialized research councils. These councils are public bodies that distribute grants or scholarships. Universities account for about 20% of R&D, while governments account for 10%. Charitable foundations also contribute, especially for medical research into diseases like cancer, malaria, and AIDS.

Funding methods have shifted significantly throughout history. In the early Zhou dynasty, government officials acted as patrons for schools of thought. This supported philosophies like Confucianism and Taoism. During the Mayan Empire, research served religious purposes, such as creating a Venus Table for astronomy. In 1283, Sultan Qalawun in Cairo funded a hospital to prioritize medical science. Later, King Frederik II provided an estate to Tycho Brahe. This allowed Brahe to build Uraniborg, an early research institute. These examples show how patronage has shaped scientific discovery for centuries.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, the system became more organized. Scientific academies emerged as central creators of knowledge through state sponsorship. During the Industrial Revolution, many inventors used their own personal funds. To protect these individuals, a patent system was developed. A patent allows an inventor to commercialize an idea for a set time, often twenty years. This helps them recoup their costs and earn a profit. However, many inventors still found this process difficult to manage successfully.

Large-scale projects demonstrate the massive scale of modern funding. The Manhattan Project, occurring from 1942 to 1946, is a notable example. It cost $27 billion and employed 130,000 people. Its goal was the production of the first nuclear weapons. In the 20th century, corporations realized that continuous R&D investment was vital for competitive success. Today, new methods like crowdfunding allow researchers to seek support from many small donors. Many funders also now require "open-access." This means research outcomes must be transparent and available in public data repositories.

Governments fund science for several strategic reasons. Public funding is often used for "basic research." This is research that explores fundamental ideas without immediate commercial goals. Private companies often avoid basic research because it is risky and has low "appropriability." Appropriability is the ability of an entity to capture the value of an innovation. Because basic research serves the public good, governments step in to prevent market failure. This support helps ensure that vital but unprofitable fields continue to grow.

There are various ways governments distribute these public funds. They may use direct subsidies, which are straight payments to researchers. Since the 2008 financial crisis, many OECD countries have shifted toward tax credits. This method reduces the administrative burden on the government. Governments also use block funding, where money is given directly to institutions like universities. They may also use competitive grants managed by research councils. These councils help ensure that money goes to the most effective scientific projects.