Fundamentalism

Fundamentalism describes a specific tendency found among certain groups and individuals. It is characterized by a strict, literal interpretation of scriptures, dogmas, or ideologies. Followers often emphasize a clear distinction between an "in-group" and an "out-group." This distinction frequently leads to a strong focus on maintaining a sense of purity. Many advocates of fundamentalism desire to return to a previous ideal. They believe that society or their specific tradition has strayed from these original truths. While often used in a religious context, the term can also be applied to political or secular ideologies. Because of this, the label is sometimes used as a pejorative, or a negative criticism, rather than a neutral description.

In the context of religion, scholars often view fundamentalism as a modern phenomenon. It is seen as a reaction against modernism, secularism, and liberal tendencies in society. By reinterpreting religion through these modern parameters, fundamentalists seek to reify or make their specific traditions feel solid and unchanging. This process often happens when people perceive modern changes as foreign to their heritage. The movement is not just about following old rules. It is a way of responding to a changing world by asserting a specific, unyielding identity. This identity is built upon what are considered to be irreducible, or non-negotiable, core beliefs.

Christian fundamentalism provides a clear example of how these movements develop. In the United States, the movement began among conservative Presbyterian theologians at Princeton Theological Seminary during the late 19th century. It expanded to include Baptists and other denominations between 1910 and 1920. The movement sought to defend traditional theology against "higher criticism" and liberal theology. A key foundation was a collection of twelve pamphlets titled "The Fundamentals," published between 1910 and 1915 by Milton and Lyman Stewart. In 1910, the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church identified five specific core tenets. These included the biblical inspiration and infallibility of scripture, the Virgin birth of Jesus, the atonement for sin through Christ's death, the bodily resurrection of Jesus, and the historical reality of his miracles.

Islamic fundamentalism has a long history that stretches back to the 7th century. During that time, a group known as the Kharijites developed extreme doctrines that separated them from mainstream Shia and Sunni Muslims. They practiced a radical approach called "takfir," which involved declaring other Muslims to be unbelievers. In more recent history, the 1979 Iranian Revolution served as a major turning point for the term. Western media used the word "fundamentalist" to explain the ideology of Ayatollah Khomeini to global audiences. This created an analogy to American Christian fundamentalism. Today, different versions of Islamic fundamentalism exist, such as the Salafi-Wahhabi version, which is promoted globally through financing from countries like Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Pakistan.

Buddhism also shows various forms of fundamentalist tendencies across its three main branches: Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. In Myanmar, tensions have occurred between the Buddhist majority and Muslim minorities, including the 2013 riots and actions related to the Rohingya genocide from 2016 onwards. Similar tensions involving Muslim minorities have been reported in Sri Lanka during 2014 and 2018. In Japan, some members of the Mahayana Nichiren sect practice "shakubuku." This is a method of proselytizing that involves the strong condemnation of other sects as being evil or deficient. In the Vajrayana tradition, the 19th-century Tibetan lama Pabongkhapa used the deity Dorje Shugden to oppose the inclusive Rimé movement. He used the deity to protect the Gelug tradition from being mixed with other practices.

Some religious traditions are harder to categorize because of their inherent diversity. Hinduism is a complex example because it lacks a single governing body, a central prophet, or one binding holy book. Followers can hold many different views, ranging from monotheism to atheism. Because of this, some scholars argue that true religious fundamentalism is difficult to find in Hinduism. However, others point to the rise of "Hindutva," or Hindu nationalism, as evidence of fundamentalist trends in India. Similarly, in the Americas, some scholars view certain Native American revitalization movements as fundamentalist. These movements, such as the Pueblo Revolt of the 1680s or the Ghost Dance in 1869, sought to reject modern state changes in favor of traditional ways.

Finally, the concept of fundamentalism has moved into the realm of modern politics. It is frequently associated with right-wing conservative ideology and social conservatism. This often involves supporting policies like school prayer while opposing abortion or LGBT rights. Conversely, some critics use the term to describe left-wing or liberal ideologies, such as certain forms of "wokeness." The term is highly flexible and is often used by political groups to criticize their opponents. A group's label can change based on political interests; for example, the Afghan mujahiddin were called "freedom fighters" by Americans in the 1980s, but the term used for them has changed over time. This shows that "fundamentalism" is often as much about political perspective as it is about belief.