Deviance (sociology)

Sociology explores deviance, which refers to actions or behaviors that violate social norms. These norms are the rules that guide how people live together. Deviance can include formal violations, such as crimes that break enacted laws. It also includes informal violations, which are breaks of unwritten social rules like folkways and mores. While the word often carries a negative meaning, deviance is not always bad. Positive deviance exists when a person breaks a norm in a way that is still considered acceptable or helpful.

Social norms are relative, meaning they change based on location and time. An act might be seen as deviant in one culture but normal in another. For example, killing another human is generally considered wrong. However, some governments permit killing during warfare or for self-defense. This shows that what is considered deviant depends on the specific place or time. There are also two major categories of deviant actions known as mala in se and mala prohibita. These terms help scholars distinguish between actions that are inherently wrong and those that are wrong because they are prohibited by law.

Informal deviance includes rules with deep moral significance called mores. When a behavior opposes these mores, it may be labeled a taboo. The word taboo comes from the Tongan word "tapu," which means "under prohibition" or "forbidden." Taboos are behaviors that a majority of a society considers highly deviant. Speaking of these topics publicly is often condemned. Breaking a taboo can result in severe legal penalties or social consequences like shame and humiliation. While not universal, taboos occur in the majority of societies and include acts like murder or incest.

Sociologists also study how people are labeled. Labeling theorist Howard Becker identified four types of labels given to individuals. "Falsely accusing" occurs when others perceive an individual as deviant when they are actually obedient. "Pure deviance" is when others perceive an individual as truly participating in rule-breaking behavior. "Conforming" labels are given to those who follow social norms. Finally, "secret deviance" describes a situation where an individual breaks rules but is not perceived as deviant by others. These labels show how social perception shapes an individual's identity.

Structural functionalism is a major sociological perspective used to understand deviance. This theory looks at how different parts of society interact to form a whole system. Émile Durkheim argued that deviance is a normal and necessary part of social organization. He believed deviance affirms cultural values and defines moral boundaries. By defining certain people as deviant, society learns what is right and wrong. Deviance can also force people to unite against a common issue, which leads to social change. Durkheim also discussed the "collective conscience," which is the set of shared norms that members of a society follow.

Durkheim connected deviance to levels of social integration and social regulation. Social integration is how much a person is attached to groups. Social regulation is how much a person adheres to societal norms. He identified four types of suicide based on these factors. Altruistic suicide happens when someone is too socially integrated. Egoistic suicide occurs when someone is not enough integrated. Anomic suicide happens when there is very little social regulation, leading to aimlessness. Fatalistic suicide occurs when a person experiences too much social regulation.

Robert K. Merton expanded on these ideas with his strain theory. He argued that deviance occurs when there is a gap between social goals and the legitimate means to reach them. This gap creates strain, stress, or frustration. Merton identified five ways people adapt to this strain. Conformists accept both the goals and the legal means. Innovators accept the goals, like wealth, but use illegal means like stealing. Ritualists reject the goals but continue to follow the rules strictly. Retreatists reject both the goals and the means, essentially dropping out of society. Finally, rebels reject both and create new goals and new means to replace the old ones.

Symbolic interactionism offers another way to view deviance through communication and interpretation. This perspective suggests that reality is social and developed through interaction with others. People do not react to the physical world directly. Instead, they react to the social meanings they give to things. Herbert Blumer stated that humans act toward things based on the meanings they ascribe to them. These meanings come from social interaction and are modified through an interpretive process. Additionally, Edwin Sutherland’s differential association theory suggests that deviance is learned. He argued that people learn criminal behavior from significant others, just like any other skill or habit.