Courage

Courage is the deliberate choice to confront agony, pain, danger, uncertainty, or intimidation.

In different English dialects, the term is known as bravery or valour in British and Commonwealth English, and valor in American English. Scholars often distinguish between two specific types of this quality. Physical courage involves facing physical hardship, pain, or the threat of death. Moral courage is the capacity to act rightly despite personal loss, shame, scandal, or opposition from others. Some traditions also use the term fortitude, which incorporates the additional qualities of patience and perseverance.

Professor Daniel Putman explains the psychological mechanism of courage through the relationship between fear and confidence. He defines courage as a choice made in the face of fearful circumstances for a worthy goal. According to Putman, the ideal state is not the denial of emotion or rigid control of fear. Instead, one should judge a situation, accept fear as a natural human emotion, and use reason to guide behavior. Success depends on balancing two independent variables: fear and self-confidence. Fear must be appropriate to the actual danger of the situation. Confidence must be a realistic self-knowledge of one's own skills and a belief in the worth of the cause.

When these variables are not balanced, courage can become distorted in four specific ways. The first distortion occurs when fear is higher than the situation requires and confidence is low; this is perceived as cowardice. The second occurs when fear is excessively low and confidence is excessively high, which is seen as being foolhardy. A third distortion involves a person with high fear and high confidence, often as a coping mechanism for past trauma. In this case, the person uses excessive confidence to prove something to themselves or others. The final distortion is having both excessively low fear and low confidence, which can manifest as fatalism or hopelessness.

Ancient Greek philosophers provided many foundational theories regarding this virtue. In the dialogue *Laches*, Plato explores various definitions but does not reach a single conclusion. In his work *The Republic*, Plato describes courage as a form of perseverance. He suggests it is the ability to maintain beliefs taught by law through education, even when facing suffering or pleasure. Aristotle offered a different perspective in his *Nicomachean Ethics*. He argued that courage represents a "mean," or a middle ground, between the extremes of cowardice and recklessness. The historian Thucydides added that the bravest people are those who see both glory and danger clearly yet still meet the challenge.

Roman and Western traditions also integrated courage into broader moral systems. The Roman philosopher Cicero identified courage as one of the four cardinal virtues, alongside wisdom, justice, and temperance. However, he cautioned that a courageous spirit without ideal wisdom might become too impetuous. Later, Ambrose noted that fortitude without justice could lead to oppression of the weak. In the Hindu tradition, the *Manusmṛti* lists courage and patience as two of ten essential characteristics, alongside honesty and truthfulness. Eastern thought in the *Tao Te Ching* suggests a different origin, contending that one gains courage from love. Islamic beliefs also emphasize courage and self-control as vital when facing challenges, often citing the examples of the Prophets.

Modern thinkers have continued to refine these definitions through various lenses. Thomas Hobbes categorized courage as a virtue of men, meaning it serves the private good and individual survival rather than the public good of justice. David Hume classified courage as a natural virtue and a cause of pride. He noted that while courage can defend humans from the avarice of others, excessive courage can ruin a hero's affairs by leading them into unnecessary danger. In the 19th century and beyond, writers like Søren Kierkegaard and Paul Tillich connected courage to existential and religious struggles.

Many famous 20th-century figures have left lasting descriptions of what it means to be brave. Ernest Hemingway defined it as "grace under pressure," while Winston Churchill called it the first of all human qualities because it guarantees all others. Maya Angelou argued that courage is the most important virtue because it allows for the consistent practice of all other virtues.

Finally, C.S. Lewis suggested that courage is the form of every virtue at its testing point, occurring at the moment of highest reality.