Masculinity

Masculinity refers to a specific set of attributes, behaviors, and roles. These qualities are generally associated with men and boys. It is important to distinguish masculinity from biological sex. While biological sex refers to physical traits, masculinity describes how people act or are expected to act. Anyone, regardless of their biological sex, can exhibit masculine traits. Some people who show both masculine and feminine characteristics are described as androgynous.

Scholars study how masculinity is formed through two main lenses. One view is that it is a social construct. This means that society creates rules and expectations for how men should behave. Another view focuses on biological factors. These factors include genetics, hormones, and evolution. Some researchers look at prenatal androgen exposure to see how biology affects development. Most modern scholars believe these two forces interact. Social factors can compound or exaggerate the differences that biology might suggest.

Because standards change based on time and place, researchers often use the term "masculinities." This plural form acknowledges that there is no single way to be a man. In Western cultures, masculinity has traditionally been defined in contrast to femininity. Common traits in Western societies include strength, courage, independence, leadership, dominance, and assertiveness. However, these specific traits can vary significantly between different ethnic groups and subcultures.

Ancient history provides many early examples of masculine ideals. The Code of Hammurabi, from about 1750 BC, established specific legal rules for men. In the Hebrew Bible around 1000 BC, King David told his son Solomon to "be thou strong therefore, and shew thyself a man." In ancient Germany, the historian Tacitus wrote about warriors who fought to protect their women from enslavement. He also described Arminius as a masculine hero. Arminius was driven to war by his rage after a Roman general abducted his wife, Thusnelda.

Different regions developed unique versions of manhood through military and religious traditions. In China, the wuju system was established in 702 CE. This was a military examination that tested archery, horsemanship, and strength. Some military figures, like Guan Yu, became deified or treated as gods. In Japan, the bushido code taught warriors to choose death over dishonor. In Korea, the hwarang of the Silla dynasty were trained in martial arts and poetry. Their code emphasized loyalty to lords and obedience to parents.

During the medieval and Victorian eras, masculinity continued to shift. European medieval masculinity was often described as Christian and chivalric. This included being courageous and showing respect for women. The epic poem Beowulf provides a famous example of a hero. However, some scholars note that Beowulf's masculinity also isolated him from others. In the 19th century, professional boxing became popular in America and Europe. This emphasized the physical and confrontational sides of manhood.

In the 20th century, masculinity in the West was often tied to economic roles. Most families relied on a father acting as the breadwinner. This meant the man provided the resources for the household. In 1963, Erving Goffman described a very specific ideal for American men. He suggested the "complete" man was a white, urban, heterosexual Protestant father with a college education. By 1974, researchers noted that a man's identity was often measured by his paycheck.

Today, the study of masculinity is a major academic field. In the United States, the number of university courses on the subject rose from 30 to over 300 during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Modern masculinity is often linked to being independent, athletic, and sexually assertive. However, many people's priorities are changing. A 2008 study found that many men rank family harmony and good health as more important than physical attractiveness. This shows that the way people live and define themselves is constantly evolving.