Caste

A caste is a fixed social group within a system of social stratification. This means society is organized into different layers or ranks. Individuals are born into a specific caste and generally remain there for life. These systems often include endogamy, which is the practice of marrying only within one's own group. Castes are also frequently linked to specific occupations and ritual statuses. Some groups may be viewed as more pure, while others are viewed as more polluted. This creates a social hierarchy where different groups hold different levels of status.

The word "caste" has a long linguistic history. It comes from the Spanish and Portuguese word "casta." In 1569, a Spanish dictionary defined the term as "race, lineage, tribe, or breed." The word actually originated from the Gothic word "kasts," which meant a "group of animals." Over time, the meaning shifted from describing animals to describing the race or social condition of humans. When Spanish colonizers arrived in the New World, they used the term to mean a specific clan or lineage. However, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach India by sea in 1498. They were the ones who applied the word "caste" in its modern sense to the many hereditary groups they encountered in India.

In South Asia, the caste system is understood through two distinct concepts: varna and jati. Varna is a theoretical four-fold classification based on occupation. The four varnas are Brahmins, who are scholars and priests; Kshatriyas, who are rulers and warriors; Vaishyas, who are farmers, merchants, and artisans; and Shudras, who are workmen and service providers. Historically, varna was not an inherited category, as a person's work determined their status. In contrast, jati refers to actual social groups that are determined at birth. These jatis are endogamous communities that can be based on ethnic origin, geography, or specific jobs. While varna provides a broad framework, there are thousands of jatis across the subcontinent.

History shows that the practical reality of society often differed from the varna theory. While the varna system is described in ancient texts, many scholars believe it was never fully operational as a rigid social rule. For example, historical records show that by the 9th century, kings from all four varnas had occupied the highest positions of power. Even the Kakatiya dynasty, which ruled in parts of India, is believed by some sources to have been of Shudra origin. A 2016 DNA study of unrelated Indians suggests that endogamous jatis likely originated during the Gupta Empire, which lasted from approximately 240 to 579 CE. Today, India contains about 3,000 castes and 25,000 sub-castes.

The way caste was recorded changed significantly during British colonial rule. In 1901, the Census Commissioner Herbert Hope Risley led a census that attempted to categorize all jatis into the four varna categories. Risley believed that the ancient varna system could be used to identify and place hundreds of millions of Indians into specific groups. This practice often emphasized religious and cultural dimensions while downplaying economic and political factors. Some scholars argue that these colonial ethnographic practices helped construct a view of Indian society as being more traditionally caste-based than it might have been.

Modern India has taken many steps to address the inequalities caused by the caste system. Upon gaining independence, the Indian Constitution banned discrimination based on caste. In 1950, the government listed 1,108 jatis as Scheduled Castes to provide for positive discrimination. This means the state creates programs to help these groups gain better access to opportunities. Despite these laws, caste-related issues remain. In 2001, Dalits, who are often referred to as Untouchable communities, made up 16.2% of India's population. The government also recorded approximately 110,000 cases of reported violence against Dalits in 2005.

Social changes like urbanization and globalization are shifting the dynamics of caste. As more people move to cities, they are less reliant on traditional agriculture. This shift allows for more economic mobility, as seen in the Chhattisgarh Potter Caste Community. Some members of this community have become middle-class urban professionals rather than traditional potters. While arranged marriage remains common, younger generations are using the internet and dating apps to find relationships. Additionally, while hypergamy—marrying into a higher caste—is still practiced, the social and economic landscape is becoming more complex. These modern changes continue to influence how caste functions in Indian politics and daily life.