Social mobility

Social mobility describes the movement of people between different social strata. These strata are the layers or tiers that make up a society. When people move between these layers, their social status changes relative to where they started. This movement can happen in an upward or downward direction. In an open stratification system, society gives value to achieved status. This means people can change their position through their own actions or characteristics.

Researchers categorize this movement into two main types. The first type is intragenerational mobility. This refers to changes that happen within a single person's lifetime. The second type is intergenerational mobility. This looks at changes between different generations, such as children moving to a different level than their parents. Scientists often measure mobility by looking at economic changes. They track shifts in income or wealth. They also study occupation to see how job roles change over time.

Social status is a complex concept involving several different dimensions. Sociologist Max Weber identified three specific parts of status. These are economic stature, prestige, and power. These dimensions act as variables that explain why mobility differs across different times and places. A person's ability to move is also influenced by other factors. These include age, sex or gender, and race or ethnicity. The overall structure of a society's jobs and statuses determines how much movement is possible.

Education is often viewed as a primary tool for upward mobility. However, social class and wealth inequality create significant barriers to this goal. A family's socioeconomic status affects a child's access to quality education. By the age of five, children from different classes show major differences in cognitive and noncognitive skills. A 2013 Brookings Institution report found that the gap between high- and low-income students has grown. This gap in primary and secondary school has increased by almost 40 percent over thirty years.

These educational gaps often widen as students reach young adulthood. For example, the difference in college graduation rates between the rich and the poor is growing. Between the early 1960s and early 1980s, the graduation rate for the poorest households rose by 4 percentage points. During that same period, the rate for the wealthiest households rose by almost 20 percentage points. In the United States, the bottom third of children saw a decrease in average family income between 1975 and 2011. The 5th percentile of families experienced a decrease in average income of up to 60 percent.

French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu introduced the idea of different types of capital. These resources help determine a person's social category. Economic capital refers to money, credit, and material assets. Social capital involves networks of influence and supportive relationships. Cultural capital is the advantage gained from education, skills, or specific knowledge. People with all three types of capital usually hold high status. Bourdieu noted that upper-class culture often focuses on formal reasoning and abstract thought.

Parenting styles also play a role in how children develop cultural capital. Some middle- and upper-class parents use a style called "cultural cultivation." They engage children in many activities to develop academic values and communication skills. This can lead to an emerging sense of entitlement in the classroom. Other families use a style called "accomplishment of natural growth." This is more common among working-class families. It focuses on providing freedom and local play. While this style offers more freedom, these children may be less likely to interact with authority figures in school.

Finally, human capital is a major factor in academic success. Human capital refers to the education and life preparation a person receives. College-educated parents often invest heavily in their children's future success. They may read to them daily or help them navigate the school system. However, systemic issues like racism and discrimination can impact this. Research shows that well-educated Black parents may face more difficulty transmitting human capital to their children than white parents. These combined social, economic, and cultural factors create the complex landscape of modern social mobility.