Bulgarian–Ottoman wars

The Bulgarian–Ottoman wars were a series of conflicts during the second half of the 14th century. These wars involved the remaining parts of the Second Bulgarian Empire and the rising Ottoman Empire.

The conflict eventually led to the collapse of the Bulgarian Empire. It also resulted in the Ottoman Empire expanding its territory across the Balkan peninsula. This expansion stretched from the Danube River all the way to the Aegean Sea.

The wars changed the political map of the region for centuries.

Before the wars began, the Balkans were experiencing deep political instability. The two major powers, Byzantium and Bulgaria, were undergoing decentralization. This means that local feudal lords were gaining more power than the central emperors. In Bulgaria, the House of Shishman ruled the Vidin Province in the west. Meanwhile, a leader named Balik established the quasi-independent Despotate of Dobruja in the east. Because these local nobles were only nominally subordinate to the central government, the military and economic power of the emperors weakened. This lack of central authority made it difficult for the region to face outside threats.

Religious and political divisions also made cooperation difficult. While Bulgaria and Byzantium were mainly Orthodox Christian, other areas held Catholic possessions. The Kingdom of Hungary, Venice, and Genoa held lands in the south and west. Additionally, the Kingdom of Bosnia followed the Bosnian Church, which was considered heretical by both Orthodox and Catholic leaders. These religious differences created constant political tension. At the same time, the Serbian Empire grew very powerful under Stefan Uroš IV Dušan. However, after his death in 1355, the Serbian Empire disintegrated into several independent states. The region was left as a collection of small, competing states with no single strong army.

The Ottoman presence began through the use of mercenaries. During the Byzantine civil wars of the 1320s and 1330s, leaders hired foreign soldiers to fight for them. John Kantakouzenos, a Byzantine claimant, regularly hired Ottoman Turk mercenaries from Asia Minor. These soldiers soon became a constant presence on the battlefields of Thrace. A Bulgarian ruler named Momchil realized the danger these invaders posed. He led an army of about 2,000 men and tried to warn the Bulgarian and Byzantine emperors. His efforts failed, and in July 1345, his army was defeated at the Battle of Peritor. Momchil died in that battle, leaving the region without a leader to counter the Ottoman advance.

The Ottomans began to establish permanent bases in Europe during this period. In 1352, they seized the fortress of Tsimpe on the Gallipoli peninsula. This gave them a firm foothold on the continent. Throughout the 1350s, Ottoman forces raided Bulgarian lands near Yambol and Plovdiv. In 1355, they launched a campaign toward Sofia. The heir to the Bulgarian throne, Michael Asen, met them near Ihtiman. Although the battle resulted in heavy casualties and the death of Michael Asen, the Ottomans were stopped from reaching Sofia.

Despite this, the Ottoman threat continued to grow.

Bulgaria and Byzantium attempted to work together to stop the invaders. In 1355, a marriage was arranged between the Bulgarian princess Keratsa and the infant Byzantine prince Andronikos. However, this alliance did not lead to a strong, coordinated military response. Instead, the two empires continued to quarrel over Black Sea ports like Mesembria and Anchialos. Bulgaria successfully defended these ports in 1364, but the conflict only increased distrust between the two neighbors. Meanwhile, Ottoman military units reached the outskirts of the Bulgarian capital. Chroniclers noted that the advance caused the destruction of towns like Plovdiv and Stara Zagora. Many people were killed or deported to Asia Minor during these campaigns.

A major turning point occurred in 1371 at the Battle of Chernomen. Two Serbian brothers, Vukashin and Uglesha, organized a large Christian army to fight the Turks. Their ethnically diverse force included Serbian, Greek, and Bulgarian people. The army was estimated to be between 20,000 and 70,000 strong. Despite their numbers, the Ottoman forces led by Lala Şahin Pasha attacked at night. The Christian army was defeated, and both brothers perished in the battle. This victory allowed the armies of Sultan Murad I to overrun Northern Thrace.

The final stages of the wars saw the total subordination of the Bulgarian lands. After the death of Emperor Ivan Alexander in 1371, the Bulgarian territories split into several independent states. These included the lands of Ivan Shishman, Ivan Sratsimir in Vidin, and the Despotate of Dobruja. The Ottoman conquest of the capital, Tarnovo, in July 1393 effectively ended the main Bulgarian Empire. Some areas held out longer, such as the Tsardom of Vidin until 1396 and the Despotate of Dobruja until 1411. By the end of these conflicts, the Ottoman Empire had become the dominant power in the Balkans.