Automation

Automation is a broad range of technologies designed to reduce human intervention in various processes.

It works by predetermining decision criteria, subprocess relationships, and specific actions. These predetermined rules are then embodied within machines. Automation can be achieved through many different means. These include mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, and electronic devices. In many modern, complicated systems, these methods are used in combination. Examples include modern factories, airplanes, and large ships. By using these technologies, industries can achieve significant benefits. These include labor savings and reduced waste. Automation also helps save on electricity and material costs. Furthermore, it leads to improvements in quality, accuracy, and precision.

A fundamental mechanism in automation is the closed-loop control system.

This system relies on a process called negative feedback. In the simplest version, a controller compares a measured value of a process against a desired set value. If there is a difference, the controller identifies this as an error signal. The controller then processes this signal to change an input to the process. This adjustment ensures the process stays at its set point, even when disturbances occur. A common household example is a thermostat controlling a boiler. On a larger scale, industrial systems may use tens of thousands of input measurements and output control signals to maintain stability.

Automation technologies can be categorized by the medium they use to function. Some systems are purely mechanical, while others use fluids through hydraulic or pneumatic means. Many modern systems rely on electrical and electronic devices to process information. The most advanced systems utilize computers to manage complex decision-making. These different types often work together in a single machine. For example, a large industrial plant might use pneumatic valves controlled by electronic sensors and a central computer. This combination allows for the high level of precision required in modern manufacturing.

The history of automatic control stretches back to ancient times.

Between 300 BC and 1200 AD, Greek and Arab scholars focused on accurate timekeeping. Around 270 BC, Ctesibius described a float regulator for a water clock in Ptolemaic Egypt. This was one of the earliest known feedback-controlled mechanisms. In 850 AD, the Persian Banū Mūsā brothers described several automatic controls in their Book of Ingenious Devices. They developed two-step level controls for fluids, which is a form of discontinuous variable structure control. For centuries, these designs relied on engineering intuition and trial-and-error rather than formal math.

The Industrial Revolution brought rapid advancements in control technology. Steam engines created a vital need to control engine speed and power. This led to the invention of various regulators, such as temperature regulators in 1624 and pressure regulators in 1681. In 1745, Jacques de Vaucanson invented the first automated loom. Around 1800, Joseph Marie Jacquard developed a punch-card system to program these looms. By 1785, Oliver Evans developed an automatic flour mill, marking the first completely automated industrial process.

Another major milestone was the centrifugal governor. Christiaan Huygens invented it in the 17th century, and James Watt later adopted it for steam engines in 1788.

While it could not maintain a perfectly constant speed, it helped manage fluctuations in heat load.

The 20th century saw the rise of electronic and digital automation. During the 1920s, factory electrification introduced relay logic. In the 1940s and 1950s, the term "automation" became more widely used, notably after Ford established an automation department. Mathematical advancements, such as the work of German mathematician Irmgard Flügge-Lotz on discontinuous automatic controls, provided deeper theoretical foundations. By 1958, solid-state digital logic modules began replacing electro-mechanical relays. These were the predecessors to modern programmable logic controllers (PLC). In 1959, Texaco's Port Arthur Refinery became the first chemical plant to use digital control, signaling a massive shift toward computer-based industry.

Automation has provided massive increases in productivity across various sectors.

In 1905, the first successful automatic glass bottle-blowing machine was introduced. This machine, run by two people, could produce 17,280 bottles in 24 hours. In contrast, a crew of six men and boys could only make 2,880 bottles in a day using manual methods. The cost also dropped from $1.80 per gross to just 10 to 12 cents per gross. Beyond manufacturing, automation is essential for modern infrastructure. It manages telephone networks, stabilizes ships, and assists in aircraft navigation. While automation has caused job displacement and influenced politics in countries like the US, UK, and France, the World Bank noted in 2019 that new technology sector jobs often outweigh these economic effects.