Amphibious warfare

Amphibious warfare is a specific type of offensive military operation. It involves using naval ships to project ground and air power onto a hostile or potentially hostile shore. This process occurs at a designated area known as a landing beach.

Because these operations require moving from the sea to the land, they are considered the most complex of all military maneuvers. Success depends on the intricate coordination of many different specialties. These include air power, naval gunfire, and naval transport. It also requires logistical planning, specialized equipment, and intensive training for all personnel involved.

An amphibious operation follows a specific sequence of stages. It begins with strategic planning and preparation. Next, the forces undergo operational transit to the intended theater of operations. This is followed by pre-landing rehearsals and the actual disembarkation process. After the troops land, they must focus on beachhead consolidation. Finally, the operation moves into conducting inland ground and air operations.

Throughout these phases, success often relies on military logistics and close air support. The variety and quantity of specialized vehicles used by the landing force are also vital factors.

These operations can be classified into three main types based on their scale and purpose. The first type is a tactical or operational raid. An example of this is the Dieppe Raid. The second type is an operational landing. These support a larger land strategy, such as the Kerch–Eltigen Operation. The third type is a strategic opening of a new theater of operations. A major example of this was Operation Neptune.

The purpose is usually offensive, though amphibious withdrawals can also occur. The scale of the mission often dictates the planning time and the number of troops involved.

Landings on small islands are typically tactical missions. These missions aim to neutralize enemy defenders and obtain a new base of operation. Such tasks might be prepared in only days or weeks. They usually involve a naval task force landing less than a division of troops. In contrast, operational landings exploit shore vulnerabilities to force an enemy to move their forces. These require weeks or months of planning and use multiple task forces or entire fleets.

Strategic landings are even larger. They involve a major commitment of forces to invade national territories. These can require multiple naval and air fleets and over a year of intelligence gathering.

Amphibious warfare has roots in ancient history. The Sea Peoples menaced the Egyptians during the reign of Akhenaten. Later, the Persian landing at Marathon on September 9, 490 BC, was the largest operation until the Gallipoli Campaign. In 1537, Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, created specialized units for ship-to-shore combat. These were the Spanish Marines, known as Compañías Viejas del Mar de Nápoles. They were the first professional marine units kept permanently for the Spanish Crown.

They operated throughout the Mediterranean to protect commerce from risks like the Turks and pirates.

History provides many examples of both great success and failure. In 1583, Álvaro de Bazán led the "Terceras Landing" in the Azores. He used a force of 15,000 men and an armada of 90 ships to achieve victory. He even used a fake landing to distract the enemy. However, the Battle of Cartagena de Indias in 1741 showed the risks of failure. A large British force, including 200 Virginia Marines, failed to overcome Spanish defenses and had to retreat.

Another example is the Siege of Louisbourg in 1745. Despite heavy French fortifications costing thirty million livres, colonial attackers successfully captured the capital.

Technology has evolved significantly to support these complex maneuvers. In the 1930s, the United Kingdom and the United States introduced vehicles like the Landing Vehicle Tracked. Early prototypes were even named Alligator and Crocodile.

Modern forces use a wide variety of specialized watercraft. This includes landing craft, fast patrol boats, and rigid inflatable boats called zodiacs. They also utilize mini-submersibles for certain insertions. These tools allow for the movement of everything from individual commandos to heavy tanks and massive cargo. This technological evolution ensures that naval power can be effectively transformed into land power.