Academic degree

An academic degree is a formal qualification. It is awarded to students who successfully complete a course of study in higher education. These qualifications serve as official proof of a person's expertise in a specific field. Academic degrees are generally organized into distinct levels of achievement. Most systems categorize them into undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Undergraduate studies often lead to a bachelor's degree. Some educational systems also provide lower-level options like associate degrees or foundation degrees.

Postgraduate degrees represent a higher level of specialized learning. These include the master's degree and the doctorate. In the United Kingdom, some undergraduate honors degrees are divided into specific classes. These classes include first, second, and third class. The second class is often further divided into upper second (2.1) and lower second (2.2). This structure helps define the specific level of academic performance a student has reached. Understanding these levels is essential to understanding how higher education is organized globally.

The doctorate has a very long history in medieval Europe. The term comes from the Latin word "doceo," which means "I teach." Originally, a doctorate was a "licentia docendi," or a license to teach. In the early days, the church held the power to grant these licenses. Applicants had to pass tests, take oaths, and pay fees to the church. In 1179, the Third Council of the Lateran guaranteed access to all able applicants. Later, in 1231, the Pope granted the University of Paris the right to grant a universal license to teach.

In medieval universities, obtaining a degree functioned like a professional apprenticeship. Students often joined a guild of masters after years of training. The traditional term of study before becoming a "Master of Arts" was seven years. This duration was the same as apprenticeships for other common occupations. Candidates first studied the Liberal Arts, which included the trivium and the quadrivium. The trivium consisted of grammar, rhetoric, and logic. The quadrivium included arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. After passing exams, students became Bachelors of Arts.

As education evolved, the names of degrees became linked to specific subjects. Historically, higher university study was divided into three main fields: theology, law, and medicine. This led to specific titles like Doctor of Theology (D.D.), Doctor of Law (LL.D.), and Doctor of Medicine (M.D.). Because students studied the arts before these higher faculties, "masters" were scholars of arts. "Doctors" were specialists in the three higher fields. This created a hierarchy where the doctorate was seen as a higher qualification. The modern Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) is a later development from 18th- and 19th-century German universities.

There is an interesting debate regarding the origins of the doctorate. Some scholars, such as George Makdisi, suggest the doctorate originated from the "ijazah" in medieval Islamic madrasas. The "ijazah" was a license issued in the 9th century. Other researchers, like Devin J. Stewart, note similarities between the "ijazat al-ifta" and university degrees. The "ijazat al-ifta" was a license to teach Islamic law. However, a key difference exists in how the authority is granted. An "ijazah" was granted by an individual professor. In contrast, a university degree is granted by a corporate entity.

Today, the awarding of degrees is strictly regulated by governments. In many countries, only authorized institutions can grant these qualifications. This prevents the use of fake degrees, which is often treated as fraud. Many graduates also earn the right to wear distinctive academic dress. This clothing identifies their status and the institution they attended. People may also use post-nominal letters after their names to indicate their degrees. Some British universities use special Latin abbreviations. For example, "Oxon" refers to Oxford and "Cantab" refers to Cambridge.