Toltec Empire

The Toltec Empire was a major political entity in pre-Hispanic Mexico. It existed during both the Classic and Post-classic periods of Mesoamerican history. However, the empire reached its greatest height of power during the Post-classic period. Its vast sphere of influence extended as far as the Yucatan Peninsula. The center of this empire was the capital city of Tollan-Xicocotitlan.

Other significant urban centers included the cities of Tulancingo and Huapalcalco. The Toltecs were highly respected throughout the region. They were often celebrated as extremely dexterous artisans. This means they were famous for their skill in making beautiful and complex objects by hand.

Historical accounts of the Toltec origins are often complex and debated. Early 19th-century historians like Mariano de Veytia and Carlos María de Bustamante collected oral traditions about their beginnings. One account describes a city called Tlachicatzin. In this story, the people of Tlachicatzin were called "Toltecah" because of their reputation as master craftsmen. In 583, two leaders named Chalcaltzin and Tlacamihtzin led a rebellion against the rulers of Huehuetlapallan. After thirteen years of resistance, the Toltecah fled the city. Some of these people later founded a new settlement called Tlapallanconco in 604.

Some researchers once thought the Toltec capital was actually the city of Teotihuacan. However, many modern scholars, including Miguel León-Portilla, have criticized this idea.

According to the Anales de Cuauhtitlan, the Toltec people established a theocracy to govern themselves around the year 674. This system was later reformed into a monarchy around the year 700. This change occurred with the enthronement of a ruler named Mimixcoamazatzin. Some different translations suggest the monarchy may have been established even later, around 752. The lists of Toltec rulers, known as tlatoani, vary greatly between different historical sources. Some sources name Huemac as the leader upon arrival at Tula. Others list rulers such as Chalchiutlanetzin or Mixcoamatzatzin.

Historian Alfredo Chavero noted that many of these royal accounts might be legendary. He observed that many recorded reigns lasted exactly 52 years. This matches the 52-year cycle of the Mesoamerican calendar, called the Xiuhmolpilli.

One famous legend involves the invention of pulque during the reign of Tecpancaltzin Iztaccaltzin. A man named Papantzin created a fermented syrup from the maguey plant. He sent his daughter, Xochitl, to present this drink to the Tlatoani. The ruler fell in love with Xochitl and granted Papantzin nobility status.

Their son, Meconetzin, eventually became a prince of Tollan. Between the years 900 and 950, the capital underwent a massive urban redevelopment. The original center, now called Tula Chico, was largely abandoned. A new district called Tula Grande was built to house religious and political structures. This included the famous Palacio Quemado, or Burnt Palace.

This new city became a diverse melting pot for migrants like the Nonoalca and Chichimeca.

One of the most significant rulers was the priest-king Cē Ācatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl. He ruled Tollan-Xicocotitlan from 923 to 947. He was born in 895 at a place called Michatlauhco. Quetzalcoatl was remembered as a wise, holy, and benevolent leader. He was known for performing acts of penance and preaching against human sacrifice.

Legend says he was tricked by an elderly man into drinking pulque. This caused him and his sister, Quetzalpetlatl, to act disgracefully. Following this humiliation, Quetzalcoatl left Tollan in 947. He traveled east toward the mythical land of Tlapallan. Some historians believe his departure triggered political instability across the empire.

Religious conflicts eventually divided the Toltec people. Supporters of Quetzalcoatl, who were mostly of Nonoalca background, clashed with followers of the god Tezcatlipoca. The followers of Tezcatlipoca were mostly of Chichimeca background and believed human sacrifice was essential. A major religious war broke out between these groups from 1046 to 1110.

This period of strife was made worse by a great famine between 1070 and 1077. These combined pressures caused many people to flee Tollan. Many of these exiles migrated to the Yucatan Peninsula. They joined or influenced groups like the Itza, who were of mixed Putún Maya and Toltec descent. In the Yucatan, the cult of Quetzalcoatl was known by the name Kukulkan.

The decline of the Toltec Empire was finalized by external attacks and internal collapse. In 1115, various tribes from the north attacked the domains of Tollan. After fierce battles at Nextalpan and Texcalapan, the Toltecs were defeated in 1116.

The priest-king Huemac was forced to abandon the city. He led his followers south toward Xaltocan in the Valley of Mexico. Other groups of Toltec exiles moved to different areas, such as the city of Cholula around 1200. This diaspora helped spread Toltec influence and culture throughout much of Mesoamerica. Even as their central empire faded, their ideas and traditions continued to shape the region for centuries.