Social research

Social research is the systematic study of human society and social patterns. Social scientists follow specific plans to explore, describe, explain, and predict social phenomena. This work is distinct from philosophy or personal belief. Instead, it relies on logic and empirical observations. Empirical observations are things that have been seen, heard, or experienced. Researchers use these observations to interact with their ideas. They use evidence to extend, revise, or test their theories. This process helps create a deeper understanding of how social groups function.

Researchers generally use two primary methodologies: quantitative and qualitative designs. Quantitative research approaches social phenomena through quantifiable evidence. This method often relies on statistical analyses of many cases. Scientists may use intentionally designed treatments in an experiment to create reliable claims. In contrast, qualitative designs emphasize understanding through direct observation or communication. This might involve analyzing texts or talking with participants. Qualitative work often stresses contextual, subjective accuracy over broad generality. However, the relationship between these two is complex. Many studies use both methods together in a process called triangulation.

Because populations are often too large to study entirely, researchers use sampling. A census is a complete enumeration of every value in a population. Since a census is often infeasible, a sample serves as a manageable subset. In positivist research, statistics from a sample help draw inferences about the whole population. There are several ways to select these subsets. Random sampling methods include systematic, stratified, and cluster sampling. Non-random or non-probability methods include convenience, purposive, and snowball sampling. Sampling is a vital tool because it is quicker and cheaper than a full census.

Social research is built upon a specific hierarchy of scientific concepts. Concepts serve as the basic building blocks of a theory. These are abstract elements that represent classes of phenomena. Researchers use axioms, or postulates, which are assertions assumed to be true. From these, they derive propositions about the relationships between concepts. These propositions lead to hypotheses, which are specific expectations about reality. The goal is to test these hypotheses through operationalization. Operationalization is the process of measuring variables to see if relationships exist.

Variables are a central part of how social theories are written. A variable is a logical set of attributes. People act as the carriers of these variables. For example, gender is a variable with attributes like male, female, or non-binary. Scientists also distinguish between independent and dependent variables. An independent variable is the data that influences a change. The dependent variable is the factor that scientists are trying to explain. For instance, in a medical study, the dosage of a drug is the independent variable. The severity of the symptoms is the dependent variable.

The history of social research includes several important milestones. Some scholars trace the origins of surveys to the Domesday Book in 1086. Others point to 1663, when John Graunt published work on the Bills of Mortality. This work helped establish the field of demography. However, intentional social research grew from positivism in the early 19th century. Émile Durkheim, who lived from 1858 to 1917, was a key figure. He helped establish sociology as a formal academic discipline. He believed social sciences could maintain the same objectivity and rationalism as natural sciences.

To ensure quality, researchers follow specific guidelines for "good research." Glenn Firebaugh outlined several rules for this process. One rule is that research should allow for the possibility of surprise. Scientists must not ignore contrary evidence just to protect their preconceived ideas. They should also look for "differences that make a difference." Other rules include replicating studies to see if results remain similar across different samples. Researchers should also compare "like with like" and study change over time. Finally, method should be the servant, not the master, of the research design.

Finally, social research must follow strict ethical principles. In the United States, the Belmont report formalizes these rules. The first is respect for persons, which requires informed consent. This recognizes that individuals are autonomous agents capable of making decisions. The second is beneficence, which requires protecting subjects from harm. This principle also states that research must bring tangible benefits to society. The third is justice, which ensures the benefits of research are distributed fairly. Fairness can be defined by equal shares, individual need, or even societal contribution.