Second-wave feminism

Second-wave feminism was a major period of social and political activism. It began in the early 1960s and lasted for roughly two decades. The movement took place throughout the Western world. It aimed to increase equality for women by building on previous feminist gains. While the first wave focused on formal legal rights, the second wave sought substantive equality. This meant changing how society actually functioned in daily life. The movement critiqued a patriarchy, which is a system where institutions are male-dominated.

Activists looked at many different parts of society to find inequality. They focused on the workplace and reproductive rights. They also studied the family, domesticity, and sexuality. The movement brought much-needed attention to domestic violence and marital rape. To support these causes, women created rape crisis centers and women's shelters. They also worked to change laws regarding divorce and child custody. Feminist-owned businesses, such as bookstores, restaurants, and credit unions, served as important economic engines and meeting spaces.

Several key ideas and events helped spark the movement. In the 1940s, French writer Simone de Beauvoir published "The Second Sex." She was an existentialist, meaning she believed individuals are free agents who determine their own development. She argued that male-centered ideology was treated as the norm. She also stated that biological functions did not make women a "second sex." Later, in 1960, the FDA approved the combined oral contraceptive pill. This made it easier for women to pursue careers without unexpected pregnancies.

In the United States, the movement reacted to the domesticity of the post-war era. After World War II, many women stayed home to focus on household duties. Media like "Leave It to Beaver" idealized this lifestyle. However, many women felt isolated from politics and law-making. In 1963, Betty Friedan published "The Feminine Mystique."

She described "The Problem That Has No Name," a sense of sadness among housewives. Her book is credited with starting the second wave in America.

Government action also played a significant role in this era. President John F. Kennedy established a Presidential Commission on the Status of Women.

This commission was chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt. It recommended paid maternity leave and better access to education. In 1963, the Equal Pay Act was signed into law.

Later, Friedan helped found the National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1966.

As the movement grew, new leaders and legal victories emerged. Gloria Steinem became a highly influential figure after her work as a journalist. By 1968, feminists were fighting for legalized abortion and federally funded day-care. Many important laws were passed during this time. These included Title IX for educational equality and the Equal Credit Opportunity Act of 1974. The movement also saw major Supreme Court cases, such as "Roe v. Wade" in 1973. These victories helped change the legal landscape for women significantly.

Despite these successes, the movement faced internal challenges regarding identity. Many early narratives focused on white, middle-class women. This often excluded the experiences of Black and working-class women. Writer Audre Lorde argued that a single vision of "sisterhood" ignored race, age, and class. In 1989, Kimberlé Crenshaw coined the term "intersectionality" to address these overlapping identities. Many scholars believe the problems within the second wave eventually led to the start of third-wave feminism in the 1990s.