Second Turkic Khaganate

The Second Turkic Khaganate was a major empire in Central and Eastern Asia. It lasted from 682 to 744. This state was a territorial union of many related tribes. These groups were organized into a hierarchy. They were linked by common beliefs and shared family histories. The empire used a single military and administrative system called the el. This political structure worked alongside the bodun, which was the name for the tribal organization. Together, these systems created strong social ties that held the empire together.

The empire was built on a nomadic economy. Most people were cattle-rearers who moved across the steppes. They lived in felt tents and traveled to find water and grass. Horses were the most vital animals for the Turkic people. Horses could graze all year because they could find grass under light snow. Sheep and goats followed the horses to eat the grass the horses cleared. People also raised bulls, yaks, and camels. Hunting in the mountains and steppes was also important. These hunts served as military training to coordinate different groups of warriors.

The history of the Second Khaganate began with a period of struggle. Before 682, the region was under the control of the Tang dynasty. Some leaders, like Ashina Nishufu and Ashina Funian, tried to revolt earlier. However, they were defeated by Tang forces. In 681, Qutlugh, a grandson of Illig Qaghan, began a new rebellion. He withdrew into the Gobi Desert in 682. He later became known as Ilterish Qaghan. Along with his brother Qapaghan Qaghan and the advisor Tonyukuk, he won the support of most Türks. They conducted successful military operations against imperial forces in Shanxi between 682 and 687.

After Ilterish Qaghan died in 691, his brother Qapaghan Qaghan took the throne. Qapaghan expanded the empire's reach significantly. He subjugated the Khitans and formed an alliance with the Kumo Xi. This secured the eastern frontier against the Tang armies. Between 698 and 701, the empire's borders were defined by the Tannu Ola, Altai, and Tarbagatai mountains. Turkic forces also defeated the Yenisei Kyrgyz and the Türgesh army. However, during a pursuit near the Syr Darya, the army was cut off from its rear services by Arab forces. This resulted in considerable losses for the Turkic troops.

In 716, a political crisis occurred when Inel Qaghan took the throne against custom. He was killed by Kul Tigin, a son of Ilterish Qaghan. Kul Tigin then gave the throne to his elder brother, Bilge Qaghan. Bilge ruled from 716 to 734 during a time when the empire faced collapse. The western lands had seceded, and many tribes were rebelling. Bilge relied heavily on his brother Kul Tigin and his wise adviser, Tonyukuk. Tonyukuk was a very influential figure among the tribes. He famously advised Bilge against converting to Buddhism. Tonyukuk believed that staying nomadic was necessary for military strength.

The empire began to decline after the deaths of its key leaders. Tonyukuk died in 726, and Kul Tigin died in 731. Bilge Qaghan also died, reportedly from slow-acting poison. After Bilge, several leaders like Yollıg Khagan and Tengri Qaghan ruled. But the Ashina tribe could no longer control the central power. Internal fighting broke out, including the killing of Tengri Qaghan by his uncle. By 744, the empire was disintegrating. A leader named Kutlug seized the center at Ötüken and killed the last Göktürk qaghan, Ozmish Qaghan.

The end of the Second Turkic Khaganate led to a new era in Inner Asia. The Uyghurs gained mastery of the region and established the Uyghur Khaganate. This happened as the Turkic tribes were defeated or scattered. Some groups, like the Basmyls, became new homes for fleeing Türks. Others, including the widow of Bilge Khagan, sought refuge with the Tang dynasty. The Tang emperor even recognized her as a princess to lead her people. This transition marked the shift from Turkic dominance to Uyghur rule in the region.