Second Fitna

The Second Fitna was a major civil war within the early Islamic community. This conflict occurred during the early Umayyad Caliphate. It began following the death of the first Umayyad caliph, Mu'awiya I, in 680. The war lasted for approximately twelve years.

This period was defined by intense struggles over political legitimacy and leadership. It fundamentally changed how the Islamic state functioned and how its people identified themselves.

The roots of this conflict grew from the First Fitna. That earlier war began after the assassination of the third Rashidun caliph, Uthman ibn Affan, in 656. Following the death of the fourth caliph, Ali ibn Abi Talib, in 661, Mu'awiya became the sole ruler. He made an unprecedented decision to nominate his son, Yazid, as his successor. This moved the caliphate toward hereditary succession, which many viewed as a monarchy. Many leaders, including the sons of Muhammad's companions, opposed this change. They believed leadership should be decided through shura, or consultation.

Three distinct challenges emerged against the Umayyad dynasty during this time. The first challenge came from Husayn ibn Ali. He was a relative of the Prophet Muhammad and sought to challenge Yazid's authority. The second challenge was led by Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr. He proclaimed himself caliph in Mecca and received recognition across much of the Caliphate.

The third challenge came from the Kharijites. This group had broken away from Ali's forces during the First Fitna. They controlled central Arabia, southern Iraq, and parts of Persia.

The death of Husayn ibn Ali became a central event of the war. Supporters in Kufa, an Iraqi garrison town, invited Husayn to lead a revolt. He sent his cousin, Muslim ibn Aqil, to assess the support in Kufa. However, the governor Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad suppressed the movement and executed Ibn Aqil. Husayn traveled toward Kufa but was intercepted at the desert plain of Karbala. In October 680, Husayn and about 70 of his male companions were killed at the Battle of Karbala.

Following Husayn's death, several pro-Alid movements rose to seek justice. One group was the Tawwabin, or "Penitents." Led by Sulayman ibn Surad, they sought to atone for failing to help Husayn. In January 685, they fought the Umayyads at the Battle of Ayn al-Warda. Most of the 4,000 mobilized Tawwabin were killed in this battle. Later, Mukhtar al-Thaqafi seized control of Kufa in October 685. He rallied the mawali, who were non-Arab converts, to his cause.

Although Mukhtar won the Battle of Khazir in 686, his movement was crushed by the Zubayrids in 687.

The Umayyads eventually regained control through strong leadership and military force. After the death of Yazid, Umayyad authority temporarily collapsed. Marwan I was proclaimed caliph in Syria and began consolidating power. His successor, Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, completed the reconquest. He defeated the Zubayrids at the Battle of Maskin in 691. In 692, the Umayyads took Mecca back during a second siege, killing Ibn al-Zubayr.

His general, Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, also worked to suppress the Kharijites.

Abd al-Malik implemented significant administrative reforms to stabilize the state. He centralized caliphal power and restructured the military. He also introduced policies of Arabization and Islamization within the bureaucracy. These changes helped the Umayyads maintain a more organized empire. However, the social and political divisions created during the war remained. The Second Fitna intensified sectarian tendencies within the faith. These tensions contributed to the development of the Sunni and Shi'a denominations of Islam.