Russian Civil War

The Russian Civil War was a massive multi-party conflict that reshaped the world. It took place in the former Russian Empire from 1917 to 1922. The war began after the October Revolution. During this revolution, the Bolsheviks overthrew the Russian Provisional Government. This government had been established after the monarchy ended. The end of the monarchy happened during the February Revolution. This led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II. After the Bolsheviks took power, many different factions fought to decide Russia's political future.

The conflict involved several distinct military groups with different goals. The largest combatant was the Red Army. This force fought to establish a socialist state led by Vladimir Lenin. The main opposition was the White movement, also called the White Army. This group was led by right-leaning officers from the old Russian Empire. One major leader of the Whites was Alexander Kolchak. Other groups also fought against the Bolsheviks. These included the Ukrainian anarchists of the Makhnovshchina and the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries. Additionally, non-ideological "green armies" fought against the Bolsheviks, the Whites, and foreign powers.

Foreign involvement added another layer of complexity to the fighting. Thirteen foreign states intervened against the Red Army. The Allied powers were among these intervenors. Their primary goal was to re-establish the Eastern Front of World War I. Three states from the Central Powers also intervened. They wanted to keep territory granted by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. This treaty was an emergency peace made with the German Empire. The treaty followed a period where German forces captured large parts of Russian territory.

The Red Army underwent a massive reorganization to become more effective. In January 1918, Leon Trotsky headed this reorganization. He turned the volunteer-based Red Guards into the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army. To ensure loyalty, the Bolsheviks appointed political commissars to every unit. They also used mandatory conscription to grow their numbers. By 1920, 77% of the Red Army's enlisted ranks were peasant conscripts. The Bolsheviks also used former Tsarist officers as "military specialists." These men were known as voenspetsy. By the end of the war, 83% of Red Army divisional and corps commanders were ex-Tsarist soldiers.

Military campaigns moved across vast distances during the war. In 1919, the White Army launched several major offensives. They attacked from the east in March and the south in July. They also moved in the west in October. However, the Red Army launched successful counteroffensives on the Eastern and Southern fronts. The Northwestern Army was also defeated. By the start of 1920, the White armies were defeated on all three fronts. The Red Army then advanced east, even when facing resistance in Chita, Yakut, and Mongolia. The war finally concluded with the capture of Vladivostok in October 1922.

The war had a profound impact on the borders of surrounding nations. Although the Bolsheviks won, the new Russian state was smaller than the old empire. Many non-Russian ethnic groups fought for national independence during the chaos. Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania successfully repelled Soviet invasions to become independent. In 1921, the Peace of Riga was signed. This treaty split disputed territories in Belarus and Ukraine. These lands were divided between the Republic of Poland and Soviet Russia and Soviet Ukraine. In the Caucasus, the Red Army occupied Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia.

The human cost of the Russian Civil War was extremely high. It is estimated that there were between 7 and 12 million casualties. Most of these victims were civilians rather than soldiers. The war led to the formation of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. This later became the Soviet Union. This period marked the end of the Russian Revolution. It remains one of the most significant turning points of the 20th century. Even after the main war ended, some resistance continued. The Muslim Basmachi movement in Central Asia fought until 1934.