Relativism

Relativism is a broad family of philosophical views. These views deny that claims can be absolutely objective within certain domains. Instead, they assert that valuations are relative to an observer's perspective or context. Because the label covers such a wide range of ideas, there is no single consensus on its definition. This variety leads to many different degrees of controversy among thinkers.

There are several distinct types of relativism that address different aspects of human thought. Moral relativism focuses on the differences in moral judgments between people and cultures. Epistemic relativism holds that there are no absolute principles for belief or rationality. Instead, it suggests that justification is only relative. Alethic relativism, or factual relativism, claims that truth is always relative to a frame of reference, such as a culture. Linguistic relativism adds that the structures of a language can influence how a speaker perceives the world.

In the study of humans, researchers use specific methodological approaches. Anthropological relativism is a methodological stance used by researchers. This is often called methodological relativism. It requires a researcher to suspend their own cultural prejudices. This helps them understand behaviors within their own specific contexts. This approach aims to avoid ethnocentrism, which is applying one's own cultural standards to judge others.

Anthropologists often distinguish between two types of accounts: emic and etic. An emic account is an insider's description of a society. It uses terms that are meaningful to the participants within their own culture. This often reflects the "common sense" of that specific group. An etic account is an outsider's description of a society. This account is performed by an observer and uses a culturally neutral framework. These etic terms are designed to be applied across many different cultures.

Philosophers and anthropologists also distinguish between descriptive and normative relativism. Descriptive relativism seeks to describe how different groups actually think or act. It does not evaluate whether those practices are right or wrong. It simply observes the different modes of thought that exist. Normative relativism is more evaluative. It suggests that standards of reasoning or morality are only right or wrong relative to a specific framework. For example, in normative ethical relativism, ethical claims only have truth values relative to specific moral codes.

These ideas have faced many significant criticisms from various thinkers. One common argument is that relativism might be self-refuting. If the statement "all is relative" is an absolute truth, then it proves that not all truths are relative. If the statement is merely relative, then it does not rule out the existence of absolutes. Other critics point to the existence of natural laws. Some argue that the physical universe operates under basic principles. Thinkers like Immanuel Kant have also argued that certain cognitive differences between rational beings might be impossible.

Relativism also connects to other complex philosophical theories. Relationism is a theory suggesting there are only relations between entities, with no intrinsic properties. While some see relationism and relativism as different, others try to equate them. There is also a connection to the concept of relativity in physics. This confluence of theories has contributed to the prominence of relativism. Finally, philosopher Donald Davidson challenged conceptual relativism. He argued against the idea that different communities could have totally untranslatable ways of making sense of the world.