New Imperialism

New Imperialism refers to a specific period of colonial expansion. This occurred during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Major Western powers and the Empire of Japan led this movement. It was defined by an unprecedented pursuit of overseas territories. Nations used new technological advances to expand their reach. They sought to exploit the resources of subjugated countries. This era is called "new" to distinguish it from earlier imperial waves. Older imperialism included ancient empires and the first European colonial movements.

The rise of this era followed the end of previous imperial patterns. The American Revolutionary War and the collapse of the Spanish Empire in Latin America changed things. These events helped end the first era of European imperialism. In Great Britain, these shifts exposed the flaws of mercantilism. Mercantilism was a doctrine of economic competition for finite wealth. Britain eventually moved toward the concept of free trade. This change allowed manufacturers to trade more freely across the globe.

Between 1815 and 1871, Great Britain was a dominant global power. The Congress of Vienna helped divide and reappropriate imperial holdings. Britain acted as the "workshop of the world" during this time. They produced finished goods very efficiently. This allowed them to undersell local goods in foreign markets. However, the Franco-Prussian War in 1871 changed the balance of power. A coalition of German states defeated the Second French Empire. This victory led to the establishment of nation-states in Germany and Italy. This shift created an unstable peace in Europe until 1914.

The Long Depression from 1873 to 1896 added more economic pressure. This was a long period of price deflation and business downturns. It forced many European governments to abandon free trade. They began to promote home industry instead. This economic competition fueled imperial ambitions. One major attempt to manage this competition was the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885. Fifteen nations attended this conference to discuss Africa. Notably, no African representatives were present at the meeting. The main powers were France, Germany, Britain, and Portugal.

The Berlin Conference established the rule of "effective occupation." This meant a nation had to physically control a territory to claim it. This rule forced powers to use armed force against indigenous peoples. The conference remapped Africa without considering existing cultural or linguistic borders. As a result, Africa was divided into 50 different colonies. The powers also made noncommittal plans to end the slave trade. Imperial rule often led to violent uprisings. Examples include the Herero Wars and the Maji Maji Rebellion.

Economic shifts changed which nations held the most power. In 1870, Britain held 31.8% of the world's manufacturing capacity. During that same year, the United States held 23.3% and Germany held 13.2%. By 1910, the situation had reversed significantly. Britain's manufacturing capacity dropped to 14.7%. Meanwhile, the United States rose to 35.3% and Germany reached 15.9%. As these nations grew successful, they became more involved in imperialism. Britain struggled to maintain its volume of trade and investment.

New Imperialism had deep social and political consequences. Some leaders promoted a "civilizing mission" to justify their actions. This idea suggested that European powers were helping other societies. However, many governments became increasingly paternalistic at home. They often neglected the individual liberties of their own citizens. Military spending expanded, which sometimes led to imperial overreach. Imperialism also created corrupt ruling elites in many colonies. These elites used imperial rents to consolidate their power. This often hindered social change and economic development in those regions.