Narcissism

Narcissism is a personality style defined by an excessive preoccupation with oneself. This focus often occurs at the expense of other people. It is best understood as a continuum of expression. This means it ranges from normal personality traits to abnormal ones. Many psychologists believe a moderate degree of narcissism is healthy. However, extreme forms can become pathological. This can lead to narcissistic personality disorder, or NPD. People with NPD may experience functional impairment and psychosocial disability.

The term originates from Greek mythology. The Roman poet Ovid wrote about Narcissus in his work, Metamorphoses, in 8 CE. Narcissus was a handsome young man who rejected many lovers. One person he rejected was the nymph Echo. Echo was cursed to only repeat the sounds of others. As punishment, the gods caused Narcissus to fall in love with his own reflection. He saw himself in a pool of water and could not look away. Because he could not love the reflection, he eventually died. In ancient Greece, this type of extreme selfishness was known as hubris.

Psychologists have studied narcissism in many different ways since the late 19th century. In 1889, Paul Näcke and Havelock Ellis used the term to describe sexual behaviors. In 1911, Otto Rank published a paper linking narcissism to vanity. Ernest Jones wrote in 1913 about a "god complex." He described people who felt they were all-powerful or all-knowing. Sigmund Freud published a major essay on the topic in 1914. He described "primary narcissism" as a necessary stage in early infancy. He also noted "secondary narcissism," where people withdraw interest from the real world. In 1925, Robert Waelder defined it as a trait involving a lack of empathy.

Modern research identifies two primary expressions of narcissism. These are known as grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. Both types share an antagonistic core of selfishness and entitlement. They also share a lack of empathy and a tendency to devalue others. These two styles arise from different motivational systems. One system focuses on approaching rewards, while the other focuses on avoiding threats. Researchers suggest that grandiose narcissism may sometimes be a form of psychopathy. In contrast, genuine narcissists may more often fall into the vulnerable subtype.

Grandiose narcissism is characterized by temperamental boldness. These individuals often show high levels of positive emotionality and social dominance. They are frequently reward-seeking and enjoy taking risks. This type of narcissism involves a confident and exhibitionistic style. They often have high self-esteem and a strong sense of uniqueness. They may have fantasies of great success and power. In social settings, they can be charismatic and authoritative. However, their relationships are often exploitative and focused on personal gain.

Vulnerable narcissism is characterized by temperamental reactivity. These individuals often show negative emotionality and social avoidance. They may be passive and prone to sudden rage. Their self-esteem is often low and depends on external factors. They may have an unstable or unclear sense of self. This type of narcissism often leads to resentment toward the success of others. They may withdraw from social situations due to shame or distrust. Their relationships are often needy and involve an excessive need for constant admiration.

Narcissism can manifest in various specific environments. In sexual contexts, it may involve an inflated sense of sexual ability. This can sometimes be a way to compensate for low self-esteem. In families, narcissistic parents may view children as extensions of themselves. This can cause children to sacrifice their own feelings to meet parental needs. In the workplace, narcissism can influence leadership. Some narcissists rise to power because they are extraverted and socially skilled. However, their focus on personal status can lead to risky decisions or white-collar crime.