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Metaphor

language culture Maturity 11-13 Next article →

A metaphor is a figure of speech used to create a literary effect. It occurs when one thing is referred to by mentioning another. This process invites an audience to make a comparison between two normally unrelated entities or ideas. Such comparisons can provide clarity or identify hidden similarities between subjects. Metaphors are usually intended to create a likeness or an analogy. While they are often grouped with other figurative language like hyperbole or metonymy, they have unique characteristics.

Anger Symbol
Anger Symbol

Metaphors are most frequently compared to similes. A simile uses explicit words such as "like" or "as" to assert a similarity. In contrast, a metaphor implies or assumes the comparison without that extra wording. Because a metaphor asserts that the objects are identical on the point of comparison, it is generally considered more forceful than a simile. This directness allows the writer to create a stronger impact on the reader's imagination.

To understand how a metaphor functions, one must look at its internal parts. The rhetorician I. A. Richards described the metaphor as having two components: the tenor and the vehicle. The tenor is the actual subject to which attributes are being assigned. The vehicle is the object whose attributes are being borrowed to describe that subject.

George Cruikshank - Very unpleasant Weather (retouched)
George Cruikshank - Very unpleasant Weather (retouched)

For example, in the phrase "the ship plowed the seas," the ship acts as the vehicle. It borrows the action of plowing from a field to describe its movement through water.

Different fields of study use various terms to describe these same mechanics. Cognitive linguistics uses the terms "target" and "source." The psychologist Julian Jaynes used the terms "metaphrand" and "metaphier." In Jaynes's view, a simple metaphor uses an obvious attribute of the metaphier to characterize the metaphrand. However, an inexact metaphor can be even more complex. It can involve "paraphiers," which are associated nuances that project back to the metaphrand to create entirely new ideas or even new metaphors.

Metaphors have been used throughout human history to express profound truths. In the ancient Hebrew Book of Psalms, dating to around 1000 B.C., metaphors provided vivid poetic imagery. One verse describes the Lord as a "shepherd," comparing a divine leader to a caretaker of sheep.

Tombe juive de femmes - Jewish tombstone of women
Tombe juive de femmes - Jewish tombstone of women

William Shakespeare also famously utilized metaphors in his literature. In his play "As You Like It," he wrote that "all the world's a stage." This is an extended metaphor, or a conceit, where the world is the tenor and the stage is the vehicle. He further describes men and women as "players" to continue the comparison.

There are several specialized subtypes of metaphors used in language. An allegory is an extended metaphor where an entire story illustrates an attribute of a subject. A parable is an extended metaphor told as an anecdote to teach a moral or spiritual lesson.

Puck; 1894-05-02; Vol 35 Iss 895 (cropped)
Puck; 1894-05-02; Vol 35 Iss 895 (cropped)

Some metaphors become "dead metaphors" through frequent use. This happens when the transferred image becomes so common that the audience no longer visualizes the original action. An example is the phrase "to grasp a concept," where the physical act of grabbing is used to describe mental understanding.

Metaphors also differ significantly from metonymy. Metaphor works by connecting concepts from different conceptual domains. Metonymy, however, uses one element from a single domain to refer to another closely related element. For instance, calling lands "belonging to the crown" is metonymy because there is a pre-existing physical link between a monarch and a crown. A metaphor like describing a language as a "phoenix" creates a new link between language and a mythical bird.

Ivory plaque-AO 11461-IMG 0704-black
Ivory plaque-AO 11461-IMG 0704-black

The very word "metaphor" is itself a metaphor. It comes from the Greek term meaning "transference of ownership." This describes how a user carries a word from one semantic realm to another. The philosopher Aristotle believed that metaphors make learning pleasant. He argued that they create knowledge and make the process of understanding the world more fascinating. By transferring characteristics, metaphors allow humans to communicate complex perceptual and emotional experiences more effectively.

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File:George Cruikshank - Very unpleasant Weather (retouched).jpg
George Cruikshank - Very unpleasant...
File:Ivory plaque-AO 11461-IMG 0704-black.jpg
Ivory plaque-AO 11461-IMG 0704-black.jpg
File:Anger Symbol.jpg
Anger Symbol.jpg
File:Tombe juive de femmes - Jewish tombstone of women.jpg
Tombe juive de femmes - Jewish tombstone...
File:Puck; 1894-05-02; Vol 35 Iss 895 (cropped).jpg
Puck; 1894-05-02; Vol 35 Iss 895 (cropped).jpg
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