Ma Hualong

Ma Hualong was a significant religious and political figure in 19th-century China. He served as the fifth leader, or jiaozhu, of the Jahriyya. The Jahriyya is a Sufi order, which is a specific branch of Islam known as a menhuan. Ma Hualong took leadership of this group around 1849. He succeeded the fourth shaykh, a religious leader named Ma Yide. His leadership spanned a period of intense conflict and social change in northwestern China.

The Jahriyya order had its origins with Ma Mingxin in central Gansu. By the time Ma Hualong became leader, the group was centered in northern Ningxia. Their headquarters were located in the town of Jinjipu. Some historians suggest the name might be transcribed as Jinjibao. This is because the suffix can be pronounced as "bao," meaning fort. Jinjipu sat just a few kilometers south of modern-day Wuzhong City. The town served as a vital center for both faith and commerce.

Wealth and influence grew through the Jahriyya's involvement in the caravan trade. This trade moved goods across Inner Mongolia. Routes connected major cities like Baotou, Huhhot, and Beijing. Because of this economic activity, the leaders of the menhuan became quite prosperous. This wealth helped establish the Jahriyya as a powerful presence in the region. Their influence extended across the eastern parts of the 19th-century Gansu Province. This area included much of what is known today as Ningxia and Qinghai.

In 1862, a major conflict known as the anti-Qing Muslim Rebellion began. Ma Hualong became a primary leader of this uprising. While other leaders like Ma Zhan'ao and Ma Guiyuan operated independently, many Jahriyya members remained loyal to Ma Hualong. He attempted various strategies to manage the conflict. At one point, he even negotiated with the Qing authorities. He took the name "Ma Chaoqing," which means "one who attends on the Qing." Despite this, he continued to fortify Jinjipu and support rebels from Shaanxi.

The situation in Jinjipu reached a crisis in July 1869. General Zuo Zongtang led the Qing government forces in a siege of the town. The government troops first captured the fortifications outside the town walls. This left the people inside the walls with very little food. To prevent further suffering, Ma Hualong surrendered in January 1871. He hoped this act would spare the lives of his followers. However, a massacre occurred after the troops entered the town. Over one thousand people lost their lives, and the town was destroyed.

Ma Hualong's death occurred on March 2, 1871. Historical accounts of his end vary among different sources. Some records suggest he was executed on the orders of General Zuo. It is believed he was killed alongside his son, Ma Yaobang, and eighty other officials. Some traditions claim he was killed by a traitor within his own ranks. His family also faced great hardship during this time. Two of his grandsons, Ma Jincheng and Ma Jinxi, were sentenced to castration at age 12. Ma Jincheng eventually lived as a slave in Kaifeng until 1890.

Despite these tragedies, the Jahriyya order continued through new leadership. Ma Yuanzhang became the next leader in the 1850s. He helped support Ma Jincheng in secret. He also helped hide the younger grandson, Ma Jinxi, in Hangzhou. Eventually, Ma Yuanzhang obtained a pardon for Ma Jinxi. This allowed the grandson to return to Ningxia years later. However, the community experienced a split. Some followers followed Ma Jinxi, while others followed Ma Yuanzhang. This division was partly because Ma Yuanzhang claimed descent from the founder, Ma Mingxin.

Today, Ma Hualong remains a figure of great remembrance. There are different beliefs regarding his final resting place. Many Jahriyya adherents in Ningxia believe his grave is in Dongta Town. A tomb shrine called the Siqiliangzi gongbei stands there today. In 1985, more than 10,000 people gathered there for a commemoration ceremony. Other followers believe his true tomb is in Xuanhuagang, located in Zhangjiachuan County. Some scholars suggest a middle ground. They propose his body is in Dongta, but his head is in Zhangjiachuan.