India

India, officially known as the Republic of India, is a massive nation in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country in the world by land area. Since 2023, it has held the title of the most populous country on Earth. India is a federal republic with a democratic parliamentary system. This means the people participate in choosing their government. It is a highly diverse society with many different ethnic and linguistic groups.

The geography of India is defined by its many borders and surrounding waters. To the south, the Indian Ocean borders the country. The Arabian Sea lies to the southwest, while the Bay of Bengal is to the southeast. India shares land borders with several nations. Pakistan is to the west, and China, Nepal, and Bhutan are to the north. To the east, India borders Bangladesh and Myanmar. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands also share maritime borders with Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia.

Human history on the subcontinent began very early. Modern humans, or Homo sapiens, likely arrived from Africa by 55,000 years ago. For a long time, these people lived as hunter-gatherers in relative isolation. This long period of occupation created immense genetic diversity in the region. Around 9,000 years ago, settled life emerged near the Indus river basin. This eventually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation during the third millennium BCE. This ancient culture featured urban planning, written scripts, and standardized weights.

Religion and language have shaped India through many stages. An archaic form of Sanskrit, an Indo-European language, spread into the region from the northwest. The Rigveda contains some of the oldest Sanskrit texts. These hymns provide early evidence for what would become Hinduism. Over time, other faiths like Buddhism and Jainism arose. These religions proposed social orders that were not tied to heredity. Later, Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism arrived on the southern and western coasts. In the Punjab region, Sikhism also emerged.

Political power in India has shifted through many different empires. The Maurya and Gupta Empires were early examples of political consolidation. During these eras, art, architecture, and writing flourished. Later, the Delhi Sultanate brought northern India into Islamic networks. The Mughal Empire followed, bringing two centuries of economic expansion and peace. The British East India Company eventually expanded its rule, turning India into a colonial economy. This led to the period of British Crown rule, which began in 1858.

The movement for independence was a major turning point. A nationalist movement grew, influenced by nonviolent resistance. Mohandas K. Gandhi became a global symbol of moral leadership during this time. He led a campaign for independence using non-violent non-cooperation. In 1947, the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two independent dominions. These were India, which had a Hindu majority, and Pakistan, which had a Muslim majority. This partition caused an unprecedented migration and a large-scale loss of life.

Since gaining independence, India has undergone massive changes. The population grew from 361 million in 1951 to over 1.4 billion in 2023. The literacy rate rose from 16.6% to 74% in that same time. Economically, the country has moved from being quite destitute to a fast-growing major economy. It is now a global hub for information technology services. However, the country still faces challenges like rising air pollution and economic inequality. India remains a megadiverse land with four biodiversity hotspots.