Federalism

Federalism is a specific mode of government organization. It combines a central or federal government with regional sub-unit governments. These regional units might be called states, provinces, cantons, or territories. The core of federalism is the division of governing powers between these two levels. This structure allows a country to be both large and diverse. It helps manage different groups within a single nation.

To understand federalism, one must distinguish it from other systems. In a unitary state, the regional level is subordinate to the central government. Even if the center gives some power away, it remains the ultimate authority. In a confederation, the central government is created by the regional states. This makes the central government subordinate to the parts. Federalism sits in the middle of these two extremes. It is a hybrid that shares power rather than concentrating it.

Political scientists identify different ways these systems form. One process is integrative or aggregative federalization. This occurs when a confederation transforms into a federation. It can also happen when a federation incorporates new populations. Another way is devolutive or dis-aggregative federalization. This is when a unitary state transforms into a federation. There are also two distinct forms based on sovereignty. In a federal state, sovereignty resides in the whole people. In a federal union of states, sovereignty resides in the individual parts. This distinction often depends on whether a part has a right to secede.

History shows that versions of federalism have existed for a long time. Ancient tribes and city-states formed alliances to survive. Between 1200 and 1000 BCE, the Israelite tribal confederacy was led by a Judge. In the Hellenic world, leagues like the Delian League existed between the seventh and second centuries BCE. The Achaean League in Hellenistic Greece is an early ancestor of modern federalism. Later, the Old Swiss Confederacy adopted federalism in the mid-14th century. The United Provinces of the Netherlands used it from 1579 to 1795. In the United States, the first union was the Confederation of the United States of America from 1781 to 1789. The second union, the United States of America, formed in 1789.

Modern political theory suggests several reasons for adopting this system. Ideational theories suggest that a commitment to decentralist ideas drives adoption. Cultural-historical theories suggest federalism helps societies with fragmented ethnic populations. Social contract theories describe a bargaining process between a center and a periphery. This happens when the center cannot dominate and the periphery cannot secede. Infrastructural power theories suggest it emerges where sub-units already have developed administrations. Some see it as a safeguard against dictators or repressive governments. It uses checks and balances to reduce threats from both foreign and domestic sources.

Today, many nations use various forms of federalism. Some are minimalistic, containing only two sub-federal units. Others are multi-regional, consisting of three or more units. Examples include Belgium and Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have very few divisions. Many large nations use it, such as Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, and Germany. Other examples include India, Mexico, and the United Arab Emirates. Some systems are national, while others are supra-national. The European Union is sometimes characterized as a federation at a multi-state level.

Federalism also connects to broader political debates and global cooperation. In Canada, the Forum of Federations was established in 1999 to share best practices. This network is headquartered in Ottawa and includes partners like Nigeria, Pakistan, and Switzerland. In Europe, the term "federalist" often describes those wanting a common government. The Union of European Federalists advocates for a United States of Europe. In the United States, the meaning of the word has shifted over time. Originally, Federalists supported a stronger central government. Today, most Americans advocating for federalism want to limit federal power. This shows how the same word can mean different things in different places.