Epigraphy

Epigraphy is the scientific study of inscriptions, which are known as epigraphs. An epigraph is any written text found on a physical surface. These marks can range from a single grapheme, or symbol, to a very long document. For instance, a merchant might scratch a single mark on a pot to show who shipped it. Other epigraphs might be long works of literature or official religious texts. An epigrapher is a specialist who uses specific methods to study these marks. They work to identify the graphemes used in the writing. They also clarify the meanings of these symbols. Finally, they classify the writing by its date and its cultural context. This allows them to draw conclusions about the writers and their world.

Epigraphy is a vital tool for archaeologists working with literate cultures. The US Library of Congress even classifies it as an auxiliary science of history. While epigraphers study the mechanics of the writing, historians interpret the events the writing describes. Sometimes, these two roles are performed by the same person. Epigraphy can also help detect a forgery. For example, epigraphic evidence was used in discussions regarding the James Ossuary. It is important to distinguish epigraphy from related fields. Palaeography is the study of ancient handwriting, which is usually made with ink. Numismatics is the study of coins. Iconography deals with images, while epigraphy focuses on meaningful symbols that carry messages.

Inscriptions appear on many different types of media. They are rarely as long as books, but they are very diverse. They can be engravings in stone or metal. They might be scratches on a rock or impressions made in wax. Some are embossed on cast metal or carved as cameos on precious stones. Others are painted on ceramic or as a fresco on a wall. Most of these materials are chosen because they are durable. Sometimes, durability is an accident. A clay tablet might survive only because it was baked during a fire. The nature of the writing is a separate subject from the nature of the text itself. For example, a text carved in stone is usually meant for public view. However, some inscribed texts are private, such as the Linear B records from Mycenaean Greece. These were used mainly for economic and administrative record keeping.

The science of epigraphy has grown steadily since the 16th century. In Europe, the field initially focused on Latin inscriptions. Many scholars have made important contributions to this science. These include Georg Fabricius, Stefano Antonio Morcelli, and Theodor Mommsen. Mommsen helped start the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum in 1863. This is the largest and most extensive collection of Latin inscriptions in the world. It is published in Berlin and is organized by geography. For example, all inscriptions from Rome are found in volume 6. This specific volume contains the highest number of inscriptions. New parts of this collection are still being produced as more inscriptions are recovered.

Greek epigraphy is studied by different teams using different collections. One early attempt at a comprehensive publication of Greek inscriptions was published in Berlin between 1825 and 1877. While modern editions have replaced it, it was a major step for the field. A second, more modern collection is arranged by geography and category. These categories include decrees, catalogues, honorary titles, and funeral inscriptions. These texts are often presented in Latin to maintain international neutrality. Other specialized series exist for different cultures. There are collections for Etruscan, Crusader, Celtic, and Iranian inscriptions. There are also series for the Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia and the Neo-Assyrian Period.

In the past, inscriptions served many social and political functions. In ancient Athens, the earliest laws were written on wooden tablets. These have perished, but we have early stone codes from places like Gortyna in Crete. These large inscriptions covered many topics, such as inheritance and adoption. Many inscriptions were also official decrees from cities or rulers. In Athens, these decrees were so strictly patterned that experts can often date them to within a few years. They often recorded the names of officials, the date, and the specific decision made. Inscriptions were also used for public transparency. Cities carved records of public money and treasure into stone. This allowed citizens to verify how the state spent its funds. They also inscribed detailed reports on public building projects. This included the technical details and the entire plan of the structures.

Epigraphy has helped humans solve some of history's greatest mysteries. The most famous example is the Rosetta Stone. This stone was a multilingual stele featuring Greek and two types of Egyptian writing. Using this stone, the French scholar Jean-François Champollion and the British scientist Thomas Young solved Egyptian hieroglyphs. This allowed us to read ancient Egyptian texts. The interpretation of Maya hieroglyphs was once lost due to the Spanish Conquest. However, modern Maya epigraphers and linguists are now uncovering much of this complex writing system. Through these studies, we connect the symbols of the past to the lived experiences of ancient people.