Environmental ethics

Environmental ethics is a specialized field of practical philosophy. It focuses on reconstructing arguments for protecting natural entities. It also examines the sustainable use of natural resources. This discipline asks difficult questions about human behavior. Should we continue to clear-cut forests for human consumption? Is it right to cause the extinction of a species for convenience? These questions help us define our obligations to the earth. This field also looks at our duties to future generations. It explores how we should use space environments to expand life.

There are three main competing paradigms in this field. These are anthropocentrism, physiocentrism, and theocentrism. Anthropocentrism focuses on human interests. Physiocentrism, often called ecocentrism, focuses on nature. Theocentrism views the environment through the lens of a god. Scholars like Alan Marshall have categorized these approaches further. He identified Libertarian Extension, Ecologic Extension, and Conservation Ethics. These categories help us understand how different people value the world. Each approach leads to different decisions about how to act.

Libertarian extension is one such approach. It functions much like a civil liberty approach. It seeks to extend equal rights to all members of a community. In this view, the community includes non-human entities. Andrew Brennan argued that all entities have worth simply because they exist. This is known as ecologic humanism. Arne Næss and Sessions used the term "deep ecology" for a similar idea. They argued that the environment has intrinsic value. This means it is valuable in itself, regardless of human use.

Peter Singer is a notable figure in the libertarian extension. He argued for an "expanding circle of moral worth." This circle should include the rights of non-human animals. He suggested that ignoring these rights is a form of speciesism. This approach is often called bio-centric. Singer initially found it hard to grant worth to non-sentient things. These are entities that are not conscious. However, he later admitted that the argument for their intrinsic value is plausible. He also advocated for a humanist ethics. This includes protecting "world heritage sites" for future generations.

Ecologic extension offers a different perspective. It emphasizes the interdependence of all biological entities. It focuses on essential diversity rather than individual rights. This approach is a scientific reflection of the natural world. It is similar to the concept of eco-holism. It argues that collective entities like ecosystems have intrinsic value. Holmes Rolston has championed this view. It relates to James Lovelock's Gaia hypothesis. This theory suggests Earth acts to maintain a balance of organic and inorganic matter. In this view, the planet is a unified, holistic entity.

Conservation ethics is often called "shallow ecology." It focuses on the utility of the environment. This means it values nature based on its usefulness to humans. This is known as extrinsic or instrumental value. Conservation is seen as a means to an end. The goal is to protect the welfare of mankind. This approach considers inter-generational needs. It was a key part of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. It also influenced the 1997 Kyoto summit. These agreements focused on preserving resources for the future.

Religion also plays a major role in environmental thought. Theocentrism views the universe as a creation of a god. Many believe humans are accountable to a god for resource use. Pope Francis wrote an encyclical called Laudato si' to address this. This document was welcomed by many different faiths. Some religious scholars have used theology to justify resource consumption. They argued that humans are separate from and higher than nature. Others use religion to promote environmental stewardship. John Muir used religious ideas to support the creation of nature preserves. He saw nature as a sacred place.

The academic field grew from specific historical events. It responded to the work of Rachel Carson and Murray Bookchin. The first Earth Day occurred in 1970. This event urged philosophers to study environmental problems. Key papers in the journal *Science* also had a huge impact. These include Lynn White's 1967 paper on the ecological crisis. Garrett Hardin's 1968 paper, "The Tragedy of the Commons," was also vital. Aldo Leopold wrote about the "Land Ethic" in 1949. He claimed that ecological crises have philosophical roots. Academic journals began appearing in North America in the late 1970s. The journal *Environmental Ethics* launched in 1979.