Culture of Europe

European culture is a complex and diverse collection of shared ideas and traditions. It is difficult to provide one single, all-embracing definition for it. Scholars like Cederman note that Europe is an "essentially contested concept" because of many competing identities.

Despite this, many agree on core elements that form its foundation. These include a heritage from Greco-Roman antiquity, Christianity, and Judaism. It also includes movements like the Enlightenment, the Renaissance, and various forms of modern political thought. This culture values the individual and respects human rights and personal liberty.

History shows how this concept of Europe has changed over time. In the 5th century BCE, the Greek philosopher Herodotus defined Europe as the West. He based this on the idea that the sun sets in that direction. Later, during the Carolingian Renaissance in the 8th and 9th centuries, a cultural sphere emerged. This was limited to territories that practiced Western Christianity at the time. The Renaissance, occurring from the 15th to the 16th century, later spread new art techniques and values across the entire continent. This period helped transition Europe from the Middle Ages into modernity.

Artistic expression in Europe began with prehistoric sculpture and rock art. The Venus of Hohle Fel, dating from 40,000 to 35,000 BC, is one of the oldest known human body representations.

Other ancient examples include the Löwenmensch figurine from 30,000 BC. Cave art also exists, with the oldest European examples found in Spain's El Castillo Cave. In the Iron Age, Celtic art featured complex, abstract designs with curving and spiral forms. These artists often avoided full-length human figures, perhaps due to religious taboos. As Roman influence grew, many of these distinct styles eventually vanished.

Classical art brought new ways of showing the human form. Ancient Greek art was famous for its naturalistic and idealized depictions of the body. Between 750 and 300 BC, Greek artists made incredible progress in sculpture. They also created famous black-figure and red-figure pottery.

Roman art followed the Greek tradition but was also influenced by Etruscan art. Romans excelled at portraiture, especially for the upper classes and gods. They also created unique wall paintings, such as those found in Pompeii and Herculaneum. These paintings included early examples of trompe-l'œil, which is a technique used to create an illusion of depth.

During the Middle Ages, art split into several distinct styles. Byzantine art emerged from the Eastern Roman Empire and focused on symbolism.

It often used religious and imperial themes, such as the portraits in the Hagia Sophia. Byzantine artists favored reliefs and luxury "minor arts" like carved ivories and fine silks. Meanwhile, Western Europe saw the rise of Romanesque and Gothic styles. Romanesque art used striking primary colors and vigorous compositions. Gothic art developed in 12th-century Northern France and is known for its sophisticated architecture.

As the Gothic period progressed, art became more human and secular. The image of the Virgin Mary changed from a stiff icon to a more affectionate mother. This era also saw the rise of a bourgeois class that could afford to commission art. By the late 14th century, the International Gothic style emerged as a sophisticated courtly fashion. This style continued to evolve until the end of the 15th century. In places like England and Germany, Late Gothic art lasted well into the 16th century. These shifts show how art moved from strictly religious themes to include more everyday life.

The concept of European culture is often linked to the "Western world." This includes the literary, scientific, and philosophical principles found in the Western canon. This term has expanded to include countries like the Americas and Australasia. These places were shaped by European immigration and settlement during the 18th and 19th centuries.

Today, these traditions influence global law, science, and politics. Famous figures like Albert Einstein represent the continued impact of this intellectual history.

European culture remains a living, changing system of ideas and creativity.