Ancient technology

Ancient technology refers to the engineering and scientific advances made by early civilizations. These developments changed how humans lived and how they organized their societies. These advancements occurred throughout history before the Middle Ages began. Historians mark the end of ancient history using several different events. Some point to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in AD 476. Others look to the death of Justinian I in the 6th century. The rise of Islam in the 7th century or Charlemagne in the 8th century also marks these transitions.

In Africa, technology began with the very first tool use by human ancestors. The Aïr Mountains in modern Niger saw some of the earliest ironworking. In Egypt and Nubia, people built some of the world's oldest monuments and towers. The Haya people of Tanzania created the world's oldest carbon steel. They achieved this using high-temperature blast furnaces. In Nubia and ancient Kush, builders used brick and glazed quartzite more extensively than in Egypt.

Mesopotamia was a major center for many foundational inventions. The Sumerians invented writing, which allowed for the first recorded laws like the Code of Hammurabi. They also created the first major piece of literature, the Epic of Gilgamesh. The Mesopotamians were among the first to enter the Bronze Age using copper, bronze, and gold. They later transitioned to using iron for weapons and armor. This included items such as swords, daggers, spears, and maces.

Mechanical engineering also flourished in Mesopotamia through the use of simple machines. The potter's wheel appeared there during the 5th millennium BC. This invention led to the creation of wheeled vehicles in the early 4th millennium BC. Clay tablet pictographs from the Eanna district of Uruk date these wagons between 3700 and 3500 BC. The lever was used in the shadoof, a water-lifting device, around 3000 BC. Pulleys appeared in the early 2nd millennium BC. Finally, the screw appeared during the Neo-Assyrian period between 911 and 609 BC. Some records suggest King Sennacherib used a screw pump for water systems in the 7th century BC.

Mathematics and astronomy were vital to Mesopotamian life. They used a sexagesimal number system based on 60. This system is why we still have 60-minute hours and 60-second minutes today. They also divided a circle into 360 degrees. Their math included addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and even cubic equations. They used these skills for large building projects and to track the stars. By studying the phases of the Moon, they created a 12-month lunar calendar. This system was a predecessor to the Greek and Jewish calendars.

Ancient Egypt showed incredible skill in large-scale construction and resource extraction. They used fire-setting to mine gold on a large scale. The Turin papyrus shows one of the first recognizable maps of a mine in Nubia.

To build massive structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza, they used three simple machines. These were the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever. These tools helped them move limestone blocks weighing approximately 3.5 tons each. They also mass-produced papyrus paper and pottery for trade across the Mediterranean.

The Egyptians also developed the screw pump to lift water from the Nile. This device used tubes wound around a cylinder to lift water through a spiral. This technology was later introduced to Greece.

In the Indus Valley, civilization focused on civil engineering and sanitation. They practiced advanced city planning with closed gutters, public baths, and sewage disposal.

In India, the medical system of Ayurveda used herbs for healing. Ancient texts like the Sushruta Samhita even described plastic surgery and cataract surgery. Meanwhile, China made the first recorded observations of comets, solar eclipses, and supernovae.