Traditional medicine

Traditional medicine refers to the knowledge, skills, and practices used to treat illness and maintain health. These methods are rooted in the cultural beliefs of various societies. They are often called indigenous medicine or folk medicine. While some systems are formalized, folk medicine usually involves remedies passed down informally among lay people. This knowledge includes ideas about how the body works and how to preserve health.

Many cultures around the world still rely on these practices today. For example, two-thirds of countries report that at least 40% of their people use traditional or integrative medicine. In some Asian and African nations, reported usage has been as high as 80%.

Knowledge in indigenous medicine is often shared through oral transmission. This means information is passed down by speaking rather than writing. Within a community, many people may hold pieces of this knowledge. However, certain individuals act as designated healers. These might include shamans, midwives, or medicine men and women. A healer's role is often legitimized by three factors. These include the healer's own beliefs, the community's trust, and the perceived success of their actions.

In Native American traditions, healing is often inseparable from religion and spirituality. Healers might examine a plant's shape or smell to decide if it is effective.

Herbal medicine is a major part of these traditions. This involves using natural plant substances to prevent or treat sickness. For instance, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Australia use bush medicine. This practice uses materials like bark, leaves, and seeds from local plants. Some healers also use animal products. In colonial America, Native American herbal medicine provided treatments for conditions like malaria, scurvy, and dysentery. Some modern pharmacology is actually based on plant phytochemicals found in these traditional remedies.

The history of medicinal plants spans over 5,000 years. The ancient Sumerians were among the first to record the medicinal uses of plants. In Egypt, the Ebers papyrus from approximately 1552 BC listed many folk remedies and magical practices. Ancient Indian herbalists like Charaka and Sushruta described many herbs used in Ayurveda during the 1st millennium BC. In China, the Shennong Bencaojing was a major herbal book compiled during the Han dynasty. Later, the Tang dynasty added to this knowledge with the Yaoxing Lun.

These early records formed the foundation for much of the medical knowledge that followed.

Classical Greek and Roman scholars also contributed significantly to the written record. Figures like Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Dioscorides compiled existing herbal knowledge. Dioscorides wrote De Materia Medica, a work that was translated into many languages. Over centuries, Turkish, Arabic, and Hebrew names were added to his texts. This work became a backbone for European medical theory. Later, Persian physicians like Avicenna expanded these ideas. Avicenna wrote The Canon of Medicine, which served as a major medical authority in Europe until the 17th century. His work even introduced the concept of clinical trials.

As cultures interacted, medical knowledge traveled and changed. Spanish medicine was influenced by Arabic traditions between 711 and 1492. In the 1500s, Francisco Hernández gathered plant information in Mexico for the Spanish King Philip II. Other writers, such as Martín de la Cruz, wrote herbals in the Nahuatl language. These texts were sometimes translated into Latin, such as the Codex Barberini. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Puritans brought English herbal texts to the United States. These books helped influence American indigenous medicine and local folk practices.

Despite its long history, traditional medicine faces modern challenges and criticisms. Some researchers note that many alternative treatments are statistically indistinguishable from placebos. There are also safety concerns regarding unregulated natural remedies. Another serious issue is the use of endangered animals in some practices. The use of animals like sharks, elephants, and pangolins contributes to biodiversity loss and the illegal wildlife trade.

Because of these risks, the World Health Organization calls for more research into the safety and effectiveness of these methods.

Looking forward, there is a movement toward integrating these two worlds. In December 2025, a global summit in India helped launch a new WHO advisory group. This group intends to use the scientific method and modern technology to reevaluate traditional medicine. The goal is to see how these practices might be safely integrated into modern healthcare. By combining ancient cultural knowledge with modern scientific rigor, researchers hope to better understand how to maintain human health globally.