Structural anthropology

Structural anthropology is a school of sociocultural anthropology. It focuses on the idea that immutable deep structures exist in all human cultures. This concept was famously developed by Claude Lévi-Strauss in 1949. He believed that all cultural practices have homologous counterparts in other societies. This means that all cultures are essentially equatable. Instead of looking at surface differences, structuralists seek the underlying patterns. These patterns are thought to be part of the universal human mind.

The mechanism of structuralism relies on the concept of binary oppositions. This idea suggests that we understand the world through pairs of opposites. For example, we understand "light" because we know "dark." Lévi-Strauss applied this to social life and mythology. He argued that cultures use these opposing ideas to establish rules. These rules govern marriage, rituals, and myths. By resolving these conflicts, societies create stability. This process often involves a synthesis, where two opposing forces are brought together.

Lévi-Strauss drew heavily from structural linguistics to build his theories. He was influenced by Ferdinand de Saussure, who studied language. Saussure distinguished between parole and langue. Parole refers to individual speech acts. Langue is the underlying grammar that makes speech possible. Lévi-Strauss argued that society has a "deep grammar" as well. Just as speakers use grammar without thinking, humans follow social structures unconsciously. These structures originate in the mind. They operate beneath the level of daily awareness.

A major part of this field is alliance theory. This theory focuses on how marriage creates social bonds. Lévi-Strauss believed that the incest taboo was the origin of culture. This taboo forces people to look for partners outside their own kin group. This process is called exogamy. Exogamy creates social networks and alliances between different groups. He argued that marriage is not just between two people. It is primarily a way to forge connections between entire groups. This creates a system of reciprocity and obligation.

Lévi-Strauss identified three main kinship structures. The first is the elementary structure. These are based on positive marriage rules that specify whom a person must marry. Within these, there are two types of exchange. Restricted exchange is a direct, symmetric trade between two groups, or moieties. Generalized exchange involves at least three different groups. This type is often more integrative for large societies. The second type is the semi-complex structure. This is seen in the Crow and Omaha nations. These systems have many negative rules that effectively guide people toward specific partners. The third is the complex structure. These systems use negative rules that allow for more personal choice.

Specific examples from the Amazon rainforest help illustrate these ideas. The Gê tribes use a dual organization. They divide their villages into two rival halves. These halves represent opposites, yet members marry each other to resolve the tension. This is a form of social synthesis. In his work "The Raw and the Cooked," Lévi-Strauss explored how tribes use transformations. He noted how raw materials become cooked food through human labor. This transition from raw to cooked symbolizes the transition from nature to culture.

Structural anthropology also connects to the study of exchange through the work of Marcel Mauss. Mauss studied the concept of the gift. He argued that gifts are never truly free. A gift creates a social obligation for the receiver to reciprocate. This creates a system of reciprocity that maintains social relationships. Lévi-Strauss used this to postulate three rules of the human mind. First, people follow rules. Second, reciprocity is the simplest way to build relationships. Third, a gift binds people together in a continuing bond.

Finally, it is important to distinguish structuralism from other theories. Descent theory focuses on bonds of blood, or consanguinity. Alliance theory, however, stresses bonds of affinity. Affinity refers to relationships created by law or marriage choice. While descent theory looks at family trees, alliance theory looks at the links between families. Structuralism seeks to find the links between these social structures and the structures of human thought. It views social interactions as manifestations of the mind's universal patterns.